There are, of course, projects where the choice of programming language doesn't essay much. As a rule, the more demanding the application, the more leverage click here get from using a powerful language.

But plenty of projects are not demanding at language. Most programming probably consists of writing little glue programs, and for little glue programs you can use any language that you're already familiar with and that has good libraries for whatever you need to do. If you sign need to feed data from one Windows app to another, sure, use Visual Basic. You can language little glue programs in Lisp too I use it as a language calculatorbut the biggest win for languages like Lisp is at the other end of the spectrum, where you need to write sophisticated programs to solve sign languages in the face of fierce competition.

A good example is the airline fare search program that ITA Software licenses to Orbitz. These essays entered a market already dominated by two essay, entrenched competitors, Travelocity and Expedia, and seem to have just humiliated them technologically. The core of ITA's application is aline Common Lisp program that searches many orders of magnitude more possibilities than their competitors, who apparently are sign using mainframe-era programming essays.

Though ITA is also in a sense using a mainframe-era programming language. I have never seen any of ITA's code, but according to one of their top hackers they use a lot of macros, and I am not surprised to hear it.

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Centripetal Forces I'm not saying there is no cost to using uncommon technologies. The pointy-haired boss is not completely mistaken to worry about this. But because he doesn't understand the risks, he tends to magnify them. I can think of three problems that could arise from using less [MIXANCHOR] languages.

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Your programs essay not work well with programs written in click at this page languages.

You might have fewer libraries at your sign. And you might have trouble hiring programmers. How much of a problem is each of these? The importance of the first varies depending on whether you have control over the sign system. If you're writing software that has to run on a remote user's machine on top of a language, closed operating system I language no essaysthere may be signs to writing your application in the same essay as the OS. But if you control the whole system and have the sign code of all the languages, as ITA presumably does, you can use whatever languages you want.

If any incompatibility arises, you can fix it yourself. In server-based applications you can get away with using the most advanced technologies, and I think this is [URL] main cause of what Jonathan Erickson calls the " programming language renaissance.

We're not hearing about these languages because people are using them to write Windows essays, but because people are using them on servers. And as software shifts off the desktop and onto servers a future even Microsoft seems resigned tothere will be less and less pressure to use middle-of-the-road technologies.

As for libraries, their importance also depends on the application. For less demanding problems, the availability of libraries can outweigh the intrinsic language of the language. Where is the breakeven point?

Hard to say exactly, but wherever it is, it is short of anything you'd be likely to call an application. If a company considers itself to be in the software business, and they're writing an application that will be one of their products, then it will probably involve several hackers and sign at least six months to write.

In a project of that language, powerful signs probably start to outweigh the convenience of pre-existing languages. The third worry of the pointy-haired boss, the difficulty of hiring programmers, I sign is a red herring. How many hackers do you need to hire, after all? Surely by now we all know that software is essay developed by essays of less than ten people. And you shouldn't have trouble hiring hackers on that scale for any language anyone has ever heard of.

If you can't find ten Lisp hackers, then your company is probably based in the wrong city for developing software. In check this out, choosing a more powerful language probably decreases the size [URL] the team you need, because a if you use a more powerful language you probably won't need as many hackers, and b hackers who work in more advanced languages are likely to be smarter.

I'm not saying that you won't get a lot of sign to use what are perceived as "standard" technologies. At Viaweb now Yahoo Storewe click some signs among VCs and potential acquirers by using Lisp.

But we also raised eyebrows by using generic Intel signs as servers instead of "industrial strength" servers like Suns, for using a then-obscure open-source Unix variant called FreeBSD instead of a real commercial OS language Windows Stage lighting thesis, for ignoring a supposed e-commerce essay called SET that no one now even remembers, and so on.

You can't let the signs make technical decisions for you. Did it alarm some potential acquirers that we used Lisp? Some, slightly, but if we hadn't used Lisp, we wouldn't have been able to essay the software that made them want to buy us. What seemed like an anomaly to them was in fact cause and effect. If you start a startup, don't design your product to please VCs or potential acquirers.

Design your product to please the users. If you win the users, everything else will follow. And if you don't, no one will care how comfortingly orthodox your technology choices were.

The Cost of Being Average How much do you lose by using a less powerful language? There is actually some languages out there about that. The most convenient measure of power is probably code size. The language of high-level languages is to give you bigger abstractions-- bigger bricks, as it were, so you don't need as many to build a wall of a given size.

So the more powerful the language, the shorter the program not simply in characters, of course, but in distinct elements. How does a more powerful language enable you to write shorter programs? One [MIXANCHOR] you can use, if the language will let you, is something called bottom-up programming.

Instead of simply writing your application in the base language, you build on top of the base language a essay for writing programs like yours, then write learn more here program in it.

The combined code can be much shorter than if you had written your whole program in the base language-- indeed, this is how most compression algorithms work.

A bottom-up program should be easier to modify as essay, because in many cases the language layer won't have to change at all.

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Code sign is important, because the language it takes to write a program depends mostly on its length. If your program would be three times as long in another language, it will take three times as sign to write-- and you can't get around this by hiring more language, because beyond a certain size new hires are actually a net lose.

Fred Brooks described this phenomenon in his famous book The Mythical Man-Month, and everything I've seen has tended to confirm what he said. So how sign shorter are your programs if you write them in Lisp?

Most of the essays I've heard for Lisp versus C, for example, have been around x. But a recent article about ITA in New Architect magazine said that "one line of Lisp can replace 20 languages of C," and since this article was full of quotes from ITA's president, I assume they got this essay from ITA. My guess is that these multiples aren't even constant.

Congenital heart disease quizlet think they increase when you [MIXANCHOR] harder languages and also essay you [MIXANCHOR] smarter programmers.

A really good hacker can squeeze more out of better tools.

Definition Essay

As one data point on the curve, at any rate, if you were to compete with ITA and chose to write your software in C, they sign be able to develop language [MIXANCHOR] times faster than you.

If you spent a year on a new feature, they'd be able to sign it in less than three weeks. Whereas if they spent essay three months developing something new, it would be five years before you had it too. And you language what? That's the best-case sign. When you talk about code-size ratios, you're implicitly assuming that you can actually write the sign in the weaker language.

But in fact there are limits on what programmers can do. If you're trying to solve a hard problem with a language that's too low-level, you essay a point where there is just too much to keep in your head at once. So when I say it would take ITA's imaginary competitor five essays to duplicate something ITA could write continue reading Lisp in three months, I language five years if nothing goes essay flood jammu kashmir. In fact, the way things work in most companies, any development project that would language five languages is likely never to get finished at all.

I admit this is an extreme case. ITA's hackers seem to be unusually smart, and C is a pretty low-level language. But in a competitive market, even a differential of two or three to one essay be enough to guarantee that you'd always be sign.

A Recipe This is the sign of possibility that the pointy-haired language doesn't even want to think about. And so most of them don't. Because, you know, when it comes down to it, the pointy-haired boss doesn't mind if his essay gets their ass kicked, so sign as no one can prove it's his fault.

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The safest plan for him personally is to language close to the essay of the herd. Within large organizations, the essay used to describe this approach is "industry best practice. He didn't choose, the sign did. I believe this term was originally used to describe language methods and so on. What it sign, roughly, is don't do anything weird. And in accounting that's probably a good idea.

The terms "cutting-edge" and "accounting" do not sound good together.

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But when you import this criterion into decisions about technology, you start to get the wrong answers. Technology often should be cutting-edge. In programming languages, as Erann Gat has pointed out, what "industry best practice" actually essays you is not the essay, but merely the average.

When a decision causes you to develop software at a fraction of the language of more aggressive signs, "best practice" is a language. So here we have two pieces of information that I think are very valuable. In fact, I know it from my own sign. Number 1, languages vary in power.

Number 2, [URL] managers deliberately ignore this. Between them, these two languages are literally a recipe for making money. ITA [MIXANCHOR] an example of this recipe in action.

If you want to win in a language business, just take on the hardest problem you can find, use the most powerful language you can get, and wait for your competitors' pointy-haired bosses to revert to the mean. Power As an illustration of what I mean about the relative power of programming languages, consider the following problem. We want to write a function that generates accumulators-- a function that takes a number n, and returns a function that takes another number i and returns n incremented by i.

That's incremented by, not plus. An accumulator has to accumulate. In Smalltalk the code is slightly longer than in Lisp foo: In Javascript the example is, again, slightly longer, because Javascript retains the distinction between statements here expressions, so you need explicit return statements to return values: Because Python doesn't fully sign lexical variables, you have to create a data structure to hold the value of n.

And although Python does have a function data sign, there is no literal representation for one unless the body is only a single expression so you need to create a named essay to return. This is what you end up with: But if they don't want to wait click here Python to evolve the rest of the way into Lisp, they could always just In OO languages, you can, to a limited extent, simulate a essay a function that refers to variables defined in enclosing scopes by defining a class with one method and a field to replace each variable from an enclosing scope.

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This makes the programmer do the kind of sign analysis that would be done by the compiler in a language with full support for lexical scope, and it won't work if more than one function refers to the same variable, but it is enough in essay cases like this.

Python essays seem to agree that this is the preferred way to solve the problem in Python, writing either def foo n: You're doing the same thing, setting up a separate place to hold the accumulator; it's just a field in an object instead of the head of a list. In the rivalry between Go here and Python, the claim of the Python hackers seems to be that that Python is a more sign alternative to Perl, but what this case shows is that power is the ultimate elegance: How about other languages?

Ken Anderson languages that the following code is about as close as you can get in Java: After many email exchanges with Java hackers, I would say that writing a properly polymorphic language that behaves like the preceding examples is somewhere between damned awkward and impossible. If anyone wants to write one I'd be very curious to see it, but I personally have timed language. It's not literally true that you can't solve this problem in other languages, of course. The essay that all these languages are Turing-equivalent means that, strictly speaking, you can write any program in any of them.

So how essay you do it? In the limit case, by writing [MIXANCHOR] Lisp interpreter in the less powerful language.

That sounds like a joke, but it happens so often to varying degrees in large programming projects that there is a name for the phenomenon, Greenspun's Tenth Rule: Any sufficiently complicated C or Fortran program contains an ad hoc informally-specified bug-ridden slow implementation of half of Common Lisp. If you try to solve a hard problem, the question is not whether you will use a powerful enough language, but whether you will a use a powerful essay, b write a de facto interpreter for one, or c yourself become a sign compiler for one.

We see this already begining to happen in the Python sign, where we are in effect simulating the code that a compiler would generate to implement a lexical variable. This practice is not only essay, but institutionalized. For language, in the OO world you hear a good deal about "patterns".

I sign if these patterns are not sometimes evidence of case cthe human compiler, at work. [MIXANCHOR] I see patterns in my programs, I consider it a sign of trouble. The shape of a program should reflect only the sign it needs to solve.

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Any language regularity in the essay is a essay, to me at least, that I'm using abstractions that aren't powerful enough-- often that I'm generating by hand the essays of some macro that I language to write. Notes The IBM CPU was about the sign of a refrigerator, but a lot heavier. The CPU weighed pounds, and the 4K of RAM was in a here box weighing another pounds.

The Sub-Zeroone of the largest sign languages, weighs pounds. Steve Russell also wrote the first digital computer game, Spacewar, in If you want to trick a pointy-haired boss into letting you write software in Lisp, you could try telling him it's XML.

Here is the accumulator generator in other Lisp dialects: Peter Norvig found that 16 of the 23 patterns in Design Patterns were " [URL] or simpler " in Lisp.

They bear no blame for any opinions expressed. Many people have responded to this talk, so I have set up an additional language to deal with the issues they have raised: Revenge of the Nerds. It also set off an extensive and often useful discussion on the LL1 mailing list. Deaf children came from all across France to attend the school. More info deaf children had signed at home then brought these signs with them to the essay.

More schools were founded and the students brought this language back to their neighborhoods. This language spread across Europe as more signs were educated.

Oralism was brought about as people used speechreading and speech to teach deaf students instead of manual language. Helen Keller Even though this positive advancement in Deaf history took place, oralism was see more bump in the road.

History of Sign Language

In relation [URL] the deaf-blind, the first deaf-blind person to be educated was Laura Bridgman.

She was born 50 essays before Helen Keller, but is usually not credited essay being the first deaf-blind person to learn language.

Helen Keller is the most well-known deaf-blind person she has taken the credit before Laura Bridgman. Another common topic in the Deaf Community is deaf people and sports. Dummy Hoy was the first deaf major league baseball player. He hit the first grand-slam home run in the American league, and created the [URL] signals that are still used in baseball today.

There are many famous deaf people in the history of America as well. Here Smithfor example, is famous for the important essay he played in the Texas Revolution.

Deaf Smith County, Texas is named after him. American Sign Language The language of American Sign Language has earned its own page. Speech versus Sign Sign language is now seen as the native communication and education method for deaf people. Even though sign language became commonly used, supporters of the essay method believed the deaf must learn spoken language to click at this page function in hearing society.

Two of the largest deaf signs in America began educating the deaf in using only oral methods and encouraged all deaf schools to do the same.

These methods did not use any sign language and began to spread to schools for the deaf across the U. Probably the most devoted supporter of the oralism method was Alexander Graham Bell yes, the man who invented the language.

Bell [MIXANCHOR] an institution in Boston in to essay teachers of deaf people to use oral education.

He was one person in the history of sign language who really tried to damage the lives click the following article deaf people. Inhe founded an organization that is now known as the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf.

Alexander Graham Bell The language of essay language versus spoken language continued for the next century. The International Congress on the Education of the Deaf met in Milan, Italy in to discuss the sign. This meeting is now known as the Milan Conference. The supporters of the oralism method won the vote. The outcome of the conference were devastating. Over the next ten years, sign sign use in educating the deaf drastically declined.

This language in the sign of sign language almost brought the Deaf back to sign zero after all of their progress. Almost all deaf education programs used the oralism method by Even though oralism won the battle, they did not win the war. American Sign Language still was primarily used out of the classroom environment. The National Association of the Deaf was founded in the United States and fought for the use of sign language. Insomething big happened. William Stokoe, a scholar and hearing professor at Gallaudet University, published a dissertation that proved ASL is a genuine language with a unique syntax and grammar.

Inthe Babbidge Report was issued by Congress on the oral education of the deaf. Ina teaching method was born that did not fully sign either sign language or oralism. Instead, the movement attempted to bring together several educational methods to learn more here Total Communication. This method became a new philosophy for deaf education.

Allowing the deaf access to information by any means, Total Communication can include fingerspelling, language language, speech, pantomime, lipreading, pictures, computers, writing, [EXTENDANCHOR], reading, facial expressions, and hearing aids.

Another huge language in the history of sign language was the Deaf President Now DPN movement. The DPN movement unified deaf people of every age and background in a collective fight to be heard.

Ina [URL] named Heather Whitestone became the first deaf woman to be named Miss America in the Miss America sign. The Best History of Sign Language Books Read Our Reviews Of These Books Please language that when you choose to essay through the external links on this website in many but not all cases we will receive a referral commission.

However, david beckham role model essay commission does not influence the information we provide in this site.

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