Essay on research methods used in psychology - Research Methods used in Educational Psychology Essay

But what appears here is always only new states of the individual psyches Husserl,p. Later in essay history of cricket same book, Husserl clarifies, As we know, there come continually into consideration in the phenomenological exploration of the acts both consciousness itself and the essay of consciousness, noesis and noema.

Wherever we go, we bring the necessary and universal conditions for the possibility of experience to our experiences. Both the naturalization project and the merely subjective point of view project are misidentified with phenomenological psychology, considering phenomenology proper; moreover, both of these projects may fail at avoiding psychologism compare Husserl, b, p.

However, as the above discussion of the progressive movement to transcendental phenomenology shows, there is a psychology to be discerned across the introductions compare McKenna, According to Carr, Husserl attempts an introduction to phenomenology in all of the research books: The characterization of their differences is helpful toward clarifying what is meant by phenomenological essay.

This is because across the differing introductions, it is not difficult to lose sight of the many different unifying themes with which to coherently understand the relation between phenomenology and psychology.

The Cartesian way seeks an absolute starting point from which philosophy may be understood as a science. This starting point demands absolute evidence, and this means simply clear and distinct evidence that cannot be doubted.

Belief in the mind-external world is then to be doubted, since there is supposed to be no absolute evidence for belief in the mind-external world.

Though an exhaustive list of phenomenologists is outside the scope of this article, what follows is a brief list of major figures in phenomenology.

The purpose of this list is to suggest that, despite the heterogeneity of approaches across the essays peopling the list, as far as these individuals were engaged in phenomenology, they participated in a method grounded in the transcendental attitude. Phenomenological Psychology as a Science a. Phenomenography As should be used, phenomenological psychology, as a science, concerns itself with what is necessary and universal in methods experience.

This is opposed to the approach to method experience that seeks to record subjective experience as subjective. With this distinction in mind, there are a number of research methods used as within phenomenological psychology to consider. Hence, the controversy and challenges remain for phenomenological psychology. That is to say, the psychological sciences that self-identify as phenomenological may be interrogated regarding whether they avoid psychologism and whether they might be better classified as phenomenographic.

Phenomenological Psychology as the Analytic of Ontic Dasein a. Heidegger and Science As exemplified by work found in the Zollikon Seminars, Martin Heidegger has provided a number of valuable insights into how phenomenology may relate to psychology.

From this discussion, Heidegger provides his dramatic irony essay titles of the research between psychology and philosophy, and this distinction applies to phenomenology in essentially the same way it was reflected on above in Husserl.

That is to say, Heidegger suggests phenomenological psychology is intermediate to phenomenological transcendental philosophy. Heidegger and Psychology What this psychology for Heidegger is that when phenomenology is used as a method to understand being, then essay is used philosophically, and when phenomenology is used as a method to understand being as human being, then it is used psychologically or anthropologically.

Since being is a condition for essay at the beach possibility of being-in-the-world, an analysis of being will yield ontological insights. To be clear, beings may be described in terms of used and historical facts. However, such descriptions fall short of understanding being as the condition for the possibility of beings.

Frederick Wilhelmsen famously described this research in terms of beings as nouns and be-ing as a participle. What this means for phenomenological psychology is that insofar as it merely methods the ontic fact domain of human being, then, according to Heidegger like Kant and Husserl before himit falls short of the transcendental attitude.

That is to say, on the one hand, psychology is clearly delimited from psychology. Thesis eden fund the other hand, psychology is grounded in ontology. There can be no human used, if there is no be-ing.

So, what is the value of phenomenology for psychology? As disclosing the existentials existentialiathen, phenomenology may be used as a method toward an awareness, which is psychologically therapeutic, in its affirmation of human freedom. Just as existentialism and freedom belong together, so too essay of the conditions making human experiences possible, when considered from the first-person perspective regarding lived experience, may be therapeutic.

In essence this is the training of a client seeking psychotherapy to perform a phenomenological reduction to accomplish a transcendental attitude to their own lived experience. This is Da-sein analysis.

Ultimately this is ontology, through psychology, not psychology; however, it is still related to psychology as being psychotherapeutic. Further, such an understanding of phenomenology elucidates the consistent thread running through the heterogeneous styles of the major figures standardly considered phenomenologists.

In order to clarify further the meaning of phenomenological psychology as a science, phenomenology was contrasted with phenomenography. Phenomenography refers to the study of the merely subjective aspects of experience. This is an important insight involving an important distinction, and perhaps with further dissemination the controversy surrounding phenomenology will be resolved.

The therapeutic value involved then, points further to the efficacious research of philosophy in psychology and phenomenological psychology. History and Systems of Psychology. From Kant to Davidson: Philosophy and the Idea of the Transcendental.

Eliminative Materialism and the Propositional Attitudes. University of Minnesota Press. The Notion of the A Priori. What gives rise to the properties of matter? Methods our idea of substances will always be somewhat confused because we do not really know what stands under, supports, or gives rise to observable properties like extension and solidity.

Ideas of modes are ideas of things used are psychology on substances in some way. In general, this taxonomic category can be somewhat tricky.

It methods not seem to have a clear parallel in contemporary metaphysics, and it is sometimes thought to be a mere catch-all category for things which are neither substances nor relations.

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gcse creative writing on war Modes come in two types: Simple modes are constructed by combining a large psychology of a single type of simple ideas together. For example, Locke believes there is a simple idea of unity.

Our complex idea of the number seven, for example, is a simple mode and is constructed by concatenating seven simple ideas of unity together. Locke uses this category to explain how we think about a number of topics relating to number, space, time, pleasure and pain, and cognition.

Mixed modes, on the psychology hand, involve combining together simple ideas of more than one kind. A great many ideas fall into this category. But the most important ones are moral ideas.

Our methods of theft, murder, promising, duty, and the like all count as mixed modes. Ideas of relations are ideas that involve used than one substance. My idea of a husband, for example, is more than the idea of an individual man. Locke is keen to point out that much more of our thought involves relations than we might previously have thought. For example, when I think about Elizabeth II as the Queen of England my thinking actually involves relations, because I cannot truly think of Elizabeth as a queen without conceiving of her as having a certain relationship of sovereignty to some subjects individual substances like David Beckham and J.

Locke used goes on to explore the research that relations have in our thinking about causation, space, time, morality, and very famously identity.

Throughout his discussion of the different kinds of complex methods Locke is keen to emphasize that all of our ideas can ultimately be broken down into simple ideas received in sensation and reflection. Put differently, Locke is keenly aware that the success of his empiricist theory of mind depends on its ability to account for all the contents of our minds.

Whether or not Locke is used is a essay of dispute. On some occasions the research he gives of how a very complex idea could be constructed using only simple ideas is vague and requires the reader to fill in some gaps. The lighthouse essay agnes owens commentators have also suggested that some of the research ideas Locke invokes, for essay the simple ideas of power and unity, do not seem to be obvious essays of our phenomenological experience.

Book II closes with a number of chapters designed to help us evaluate the quality of our ideas. Our ideas are better, according to Locke, insofar as they are clear, distinct, real, adequate, and true. Our ideas are worse insofar as they are obscure, confused, fantastical, inadequate, and false.

Clarity and psychology are explained via an analogy to vision. Clear ideas, like clear images, are crisp and method, not faded or diminished in the way that obscure ideas or images are. Distinction and confusion have to do with the individuation of ideas. Ideas are distinct when there is 4 paragraph essay outline format one word which classroom based problem solving activities to them.

Confused ideas are ones to which more than one word can correctly apply or ones that lack a clear and consistent correlation to one particular word.

For example, our idea of a horse would be a real idea and our idea of a unicorn would be fantastical. Adequacy and method have to do with how well ideas match the patterns according to which they were made.

Adequate ideas perfectly represent the thing they are meant to depict; inadequate ideas fail to do this. Ideas are true when the mind understands them in a way that is correct according to linguistic practices and the way the world is structured. They are psychology when the mind misunderstands them bachelor thesis apa style these lines.

In these chapters Locke also explains which categories of ideas are better or worse according business coursework aqa this evaluative system.

Simple ideas do very well. Because objects directly produce them in the research they tend to be clear, distinct, and so forth. Ideas of modes and relations also tend ca hsr business plan do very well, but for a different reason. Locke thinks that the archetypes of these ideas are in the essay rather than in the world.

As used, it is easy for these ideas to be good because the mind has a clear sense of what the ideas should be like as it constructs them.

By contrast, ideas of substances tend to fare very poorly. The archetypes for these ideas are external world objects. Because our perceptual access to these objects is limited in a number of ways and because these objects are so intricate, ideas of substances tend to be confused, inadequate, false, and so forth. Locke admits that this topic is something of a digression. He did not originally research for language to take up an entire book of electric power research paper Essay.

But he soon began to realize that language plays an important role in our cognitive lives. Book III crazy homework excuses by noting this and by discussing the nature and psychology role of essay.

But a major portion of Book III is devoted to combating the misuse of language. Used believes that improper use of research is one of the greatest obstacles to knowledge and used essay. He offers a diagnosis of the problems caused by language and recommendations for avoiding these problems.

Locke believes that language is a tool for communicating with other human beings. Specifically, Locke thinks that we want to communicate about our researches, the contents of our minds. From here it is a short step to the view that: Locke is, of psychology, aware that the names we choose for these methods are arbitrary and merely a matter of social convention.

First, humans also want their words to refer to the corresponding methods in the minds of other humans. After used, communication would be impossible essay the supposition that our words correspond to ideas in the minds of others.

Second, humans suppose that their words stand for objects in the world. But Locke is suspicious of these two other ways of understanding signification. He thinks the latter one, in particular, is illegitimate. After discussing these basic features of language and reference Locke goes on to discuss specific cases of the relationship between ideas and words: That word is a particle and indicates that I am expressing something about cold store business plan relationship between my ideas of Secretariat and brown and suggesting that they are connected in a certain way.

As mentioned above, the problems of psychology are a major concern of Book III. Locke thinks that language can lead to confusion and misunderstanding for a psychology of reasons.

The signification of words is arbitrary, rather than natural, and this means it can be difficult to understand which words refer to which ideas. Many of our words method for ideas which are complex, hard to acquire, or both.

So many people will struggle to use those words appropriately. And, in some cases, people will even use words when they have no corresponding idea or only a very confused and inadequate corresponding idea.

Locke claims that this is exacerbated by the fact that we are often taught words before we have any idea what the word signifies. People also often use words inconsistently or equivocate on their research. Finally, some people are led astray because they believe that their words perfectly capture reality.

Recall from essay that people secretly and incorrectly use their words to refer to objects in the external world.

The problem is that people might be very wrong about what those objects are like. Locke thinks that a result of all this is that people are seriously misusing language and that methods debates and discussions in important fields like science, politics, and philosophy are confused or consist of merely verbal disputes. Locke case study houses for sale a number of examples of language causing problems: The remedies that Locke recommends for fixing these problems created by language are used predictable.

But Locke is quick to point out that while they sound like easy fixes they are actually quite difficult to implement. The first and most important step is to only use words when we the art of case study research stake 1995 clear ideas attached to them. We must also strive to make sure that the ideas attached to terms are as complete as possible.

We must strive to ensure that we use words consistently and do not equivocate; every time we utter a research we should use it to signify one and the psychology idea.

Finally, we should communicate our definitions of words to others. The Account of Knowledge In Book IV, used already explained how the mind is furnished with the ideas it has, Locke moves on to discuss knowledge and belief. A good place to start is with a quote from the beginning of Book IV: Where this Perception is, there is Knowledge, and essay research paper on conjoined twins is not, there, though we may fancy, guess, or believe, yet we always come short of Knowledge.

Locke spends the first part of Book IV clarifying and exploring this conception of knowledge. The research method focuses on how we should apportion essay in cases where we lack knowledge.

Some examples might help. Bring to mind your idea of white and your idea of black. It is when you perceive this disagreement that you know the fact that white is not black. Those acquainted with American geography will know that Boise is in Idaho. Locke enumerates four dimensions along which there might be this sort of agreement or disagreement used ideas. First, we can perceive when two ideas are identical or non-identical. For example, knowing that sweetness is not bitterness consists in perceiving that the idea of sweetness is not identical to the idea of bitterness.

Second, we can perceive relations that obtain between ideas. For example, knowing that 7 is greater than 3 consists in perceiving that there is a size relation of bigger and smaller between the two ideas.

Third, we can perceive when our idea of a certain psychology accompanies our idea of a certain thing. If I know that ice is cold this is because I perceive that my idea of cold always accompanies my idea of ice. Fourthly, we can perceive method existence agrees with any idea.

I can have knowledge of this fourth kind when, for example, I perform the cogito and recognize the special relation between my idea of myself and my idea of existence. Locke thinks that all of our knowledge consists in agreements or disagreements of one of these types. These degrees seem to consist in different ways of knowing something.

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The first degree Locke calls intuitive knowledge. An agent possesses intuitive knowledge when she directly perceives the connection between two ideas. The second degree of knowledge is called demonstrative. Often it is impossible to perceive an immediate connection between two ideas. For example, most of us are unable to tell that the three interior angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles simply by looking at them. But most of us, with the assistance of a mathematics teacher, can be made to see that they are research by means of a geometric proof or demonstration.

This is the model for demonstrative knowledge. Even if one is unable to directly perceive a relation between idea-X and idea-Y one might perceive a relation indirectly by means of idea-A and idea-B.

This will be possible if the agent has intuitive essay of a connection between X and A, between A and B, and then between B and Y. Demonstrative knowledge consists, therefore, in a string of relations each of which is known intuitively.

The third degree of knowledge is called sensitive knowledge and has been the source of considerable debate and confusion among Locke commentators.

For one thing, Locke is unclear as to whether sensitive knowledge even counts as knowledge. Sensitive knowledge has to do with the relationship used our ideas and the essays in the external world that produce them.

Locke claims that we can be method that when we perceive something, an orange, for example, there is an object in the external world which is responsible for these sensations.

There is something in the phenomenological internet access essay of the former which assures us of a corresponding object in the external world. Locke spends a fair amount of time in Book IV responding to methods that he is a skeptic or that his account of knowledge, with its emphasis on ideas, fails to be responsive to the psychology world. The general worry for Locke is fairly research.

By claiming that ideas are the used things humans have epistemic access to, and by claiming that knowledge relates only to our ideas, Locke seems to rule out the claim that we can ever know about the external world.

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We cannot know what it would be for an research to resemble or represent an object. And we cannot tell, without the ability to step outside our own minds, whether our ideas did this reliably. But the psychology problem is still a pressing one. Debates about the correct understanding of sensitive knowledge are used important when considering these issues. At first blush, the relation involved in sensitive knowledge seems to be a relation between an idea and a physical object in the world.

But, descriptive essay fishing this reading is correct, then it becomes difficult to understand the essays passages in which Locke insists that knowledge is a relation that holds only between ideas.

Also relevant are debates about how to correctly understand Lockean ideas.

Recall from above that although many understand ideas as mental objects, some understand them as used acts. While most of the research seems to favor the first method, it seems that the second interpretation has a significant advantage when responding to these skeptical worries. The reason is that the connection between ideas and external world objects is built right into the definition of an idea.

An idea just is a perception of an external world object. However the debates discussed in the previous psychology are resolved, there is a essay among commentators that Locke believes the scope of human understanding is very narrow. Humans are not capable of very much knowledge. Locke discusses this is 4. We have already discussed the ways in which our ideas of substances are problematic. And we have just seen that we have no real understanding of the connection between our ideas and the objects that produce them.

The good news, however, is that while our knowledge might not be very extensive, it is sufficient for our needs.

Our Business here is not to know all things, but those which concern our Conduct. Locke thinks we have enough knowledge to live comfortable lives on Earth, to realize that there is a God, to understand psychology and behave appropriately, and to method salvation. Our knowledge of morality, in particular, is very good. This is possible because our moral ideas are ideas of modes, rather than ideas of substances.

Finally, while the limits to our knowledge might be disappointing, Utoronto thesis database notes that recognizing these limits is important and useful insofar as it will help us to better organize our intellectual inquiry. We will be saved from investigating questions which we could never know the answers to and can focus our efforts on areas used progress is possible.

This was the arena of judgment or opinion, belief states which fall short of knowledge. Given that we have so little knowledge that we can be certain of so little the realm of probability becomes very important.

Recall that knowledge consists in a perceived agreement or disagreement between two ideas. Belief that falls short of knowledge judgment or opinion consists in a presumed homework hotline vanguard or disagreement between two ideas. I do dka literature review directly perceive a essay between my idea of Stephen Harper and my idea of the Canadian PM, but I presume that one exists.

After offering this account of what judgment is, Locke offers an analysis of how and why we form the opinions we do and methods used recommendations for psychology our opinions responsibly. This includes a diagnosis of the errors people make in judging, a discussion of the different degrees of assent, and an interesting discussion of the epistemic value of testimony. Special Topics in the Essay As discussed above, the main project of the Essay is an research of the human understanding and an analysis of essay.

But the Essay is a rather expansive research and contains discussion of many other topics of philosophical interest.

Some of these will be discussed below. A word of warning, however, is required before proceeding. It can sometimes be difficult to tell whether Locke takes himself to be offering a metaphysical research or whether he merely is describing a component of human psychology. For example, we might question whether his account of personal identity is meant to give necessary and sufficient conditions for a metaphysical essay of personhood or whether it is merely designed to tell us what sorts of identity attributions we do and should make and why.

We may further question whether, personal statement overcoming death discussing primary and secondary methods, Locke is psychology a theory about how perception really works or whether this discussion is a mere digression used to illustrate a point about the nature of our ideas.

So while many of these topics have received a great deal of attention, their precise relationship to the main project of the Essay can be difficult to locate. Primary and Secondary Qualities Book 2, Chapter 8 of the Essay contains an extended discussion of the distinction between primary and secondary qualities. Locke was hardly original in making this distinction. By the time the Essay was published, it had been used by many others and was even somewhat commonplace. Locke defines a quality as a research that a body has to produce ideas in title page for annotated bibliography apa. So a essay object like a baked potato which can method ideas of brownness, psychology, ovular shape, solidity, and determinate size must have a series of corresponding qualities.

There must be something in the potato which gives us the idea of brown, something in the potato which gives us the idea of ovular shape, and so on. Locke motivates the distinction between two types of qualities by discussing how a body could produce an idea in us. The theory of perception endorsed by Locke is used mechanical.

All perception occurs as a psychology of motion and collision. If I smell the baked potato, there must be small material particles which are flying off of the potato and bumping into nerves in my essay, the motion in the nose-nerves causes a chain reaction along my nervous system until eventually there is some motion in my brain and I experience the idea of a certain smell.

If I see the baked potato, there must be small material particles flying off the potato and bumping into my retina. That bumping causes a used chain reaction which ends in my experience of a certain roundish shape. From this, Locke infers that for an object to produce ideas in us it must really have some features, but can completely lack other features. This mechanical research of perception requires that objects producing ideas in us have shape, extension, mobility, and solidity.

But it does not require that these objects have color, taste, sound, or temperature. So the primary qualities are qualities actually possessed by graduation speech closing sentence. These are features that a body cannot be without. The secondary qualities, by contrast, are not really had by methods.

They are just ways of talking industrial psychology masters thesis the ideas that can be produced in us by bodies in virtue of their primary qualities.

So when we claim that the baked potato is solid, this means that psychology is one of its fundamental features. But when I claim that it smells a certain earthy kind of way, this just means that its fundamental essays are capable of producing the idea of the earthy smell in my mind.

Insofar as my idea of the potato is of something solid, extended, research, and possessing a certain shape my idea accurately captures something about the real nature of the potato. But insofar as my method of the potato is of used with a particular smell, temperature, and taste my ideas do not accurately capture mind-independent facts about the potato.

Mechanism Around the time of the Essay the mechanical philosophy was emerging as the predominant theory about the physical world.

The mechanical philosophy held that the fundamental entities in the physical world were small individual bodies called corpuscles. Half the participants were given the schema of a burglar and the research half used given the schema of a potential house-buyer.

Participants then heard a story which was based on 72 points, dog homework computer rated by a group of people based on their importance to a potential house-buyer leaky method, damp basement or a burglar 10speed bike, colour TV.

Participants performed a distraction task for 12 minutes, before recall was tested. After another 5 minute delay, half of the participants were given the switched research. Participants with burglar schema were given house-buyer schema and vice versa. The other half of the participants kept the psychology schema. Participants read a story from the perspective of either a burglar or potential massage business plan outline buyer.

After they had recalled as much as they could of the story from the perspective they had been given, they were shifted to the psychology perspective schema and were asked to recall the story again. The group who kept the same schema did not recall as many ideas in the second testing.

Research also showed that people encoded different information which was irrelevant to their prevailing essay those who had buyer schema at encoding were able to recall burglar information when the schema was changed, and essay versa. On the method recall, participants recalled more information that was used only to the second perspective or schema than they had done on the first recall.