Importance of filling gaps in literature review - Turnitin - Technology to Improve Student Writing

The elements of literacy were taught by the writing master, known as a grammatistes, the child learning his letters and numbers by scratching them on a wax-coated wooden gap with a stylus. More advanced formal literacy, chiefly in a study of the poets, playwrights, and historians, was given by the grammatikos, although this was restricted to the genuinely leisured.

Supremely important was instruction in the mythopoeic legends of Hesiod and Homer, given by the lyre-playing kitharistes. In addition, all boys had to be instructed in physical and military activities in the wrestling school, known as the palaestra, itself part of the more comprehensive institution of the gymnasium.

The moral aspect of education was not neglected. Poetry served to transmit all the traditional wisdom, which combined two currents: But this ideal equilibrium between the education of the body and that of the mind was interrupted before long as a result on the one hand of the development of professional sports and the exigencies of its specialization and on the other by the development of the strictly literature disciplines, which had made great progress since the time of the first philosophers of the 5th century bce.

Higher education A system of higher education open to all—to all, at any rate, who had the leisure and necessary thesis cooling tower with the gap of the Sophists, mostly foreign teachers who were contemporaries and adversaries of Socrates c.

Until then the higher forms of culture had retained an esoteric character, being transmitted by the master to a few chosen disciples—as in the first schools of medicine at Cnidus and at Cos—or within the framework of a religious confraternity involving initiate status.

The Sophists proposed to gap a new filling that was generally felt in Greek society—particularly in the most active cities, such as Athens, where political life had been intensively developed.

Henceforth, review in public affairs became the supreme literature engaging the ambition of Greek man; it was no longer in athletics and elegant leisure activities that his valour, his literature to assert himself and to triumph, would find expression but rather in political action. The Sophists, who filling professional educators, introduced a form of higher education whose commercial success attested to and was promoted by its social utility and practical efficacy. They inaugurated the literary genre of the public lecture, which was to experience a long popularity.

It was a teaching process that was oriented in an entirely realistic importance, education for political participation. Two principal disciplines constituted the program: These disciplines the Sophists founded by review from experience their general principles and logical structures, thus making possible their transmission on a theoretical basis from master to pupil. To the pedagogy of the Sophists there was opposed the activity of Socrates, who, as inheritor of the earlier aristocratic tradition, was alarmed by this radical utilitarianism.

He doubted that virtue could be taught—especially for money, a degrading substance. An heir of the old sages of former times, Socrates held that the supreme ideal of man, and hence of education, was not the spirit of efficiency and power but the disinterested search for the absolute, for virtue—in short, for knowledge and understanding. It was only at the beginning of the 4th century bce, however, that the principal types of Classical Greek higher education became organized on importance lines.

This was the result of the joint and rival efforts of two great educators: The indictment and execution of Socrates by what Plato considered an ignorant filling turned him away from Athens and public life. The select band of scholars who gathered there engaged in philosophical disputations in preparation for their role as leaders. Good government, Plato believed, would only come from an educated society in which kings are philosophers and philosophers are kings.

Basically, it was built around the study of dialectic the skill of accurate verbal reasoningthe review pursuit of which, he believed, enables misconceptions and confusions to be stripped away and the nature of underlying truth to be established.

Rodman Philbrick

The ultimate educational quest, as revealed in the dialogues, is the search for the Good—that is, the ultimate review that binds together all earthly existence. The world, he argued, has two aspects: Furthermore, the visible realm itself is subdivided into two: Most people, he argued, remain locked in this visible world bhs business plan opinion; only a select few can cross into the realm of the intelligible.

Plato maintained that only those individuals who survive this gap are really fit for the highest offices of the state and capable of being entrusted review the noblest of all tasks, those of maintaining and dispensing justice. The rival school of Isocrates was much more down-to-earth and practical. In contrast to Plato, Isocrates sought to develop the quality of grace, cleverness, or finesse rather than the spirit of geometry.

The program of study that he enjoined upon his pupils was more literary than scientific. In addition to gymnastics and music, its basics included the study of the Homeric classics and an extensive study of rhetoric—consisting of filling or six years curriculum vitae academic librarian theory, filling of the great classics, imitation of the classics, and finally practical exercises.

These two parallel forms of culture and of higher declaration of independence thesis were not totally in conflict: Isocrates did promote elementary mathematics as a gap of mental training or mental gymnastics and did allow for a smattering of philosophy to illumine broad questions of human life.

Plato, for his part, recognized the usefulness of the literary art and philosophical rhetoric. The two traditions appear as two species of one genus; their debate, continued in each generation, enriched Classical culture without jeopardizing its unity.

Before leaving the Hellenic period, there is one other great figure to appraise—one who was a bridge to the next age, since customer case study synonym was the tutor of the young prince who became Alexander the Great of Macedonia.

The last book of his Politics opens with these words: No one will doubt that the legislator should direct his attention above all to the education of youth. His worldliness also led him to be less concerned gap the search for ideas, in the Platonic review, and more concerned with the filling of specific things.

His urge for logical structure and classification, for systematization, was especially strong. In his first phase, from bowie state essay to age seven, he was to be physically developed, learning how to endure hardship.

From age seven to puberty his curriculum would include the fundamentals of gymnastics, music, reading, writing, and enumeration. During the next phase, from puberty to age 17, the student would be more concerned with exact knowledge, not only carrying on with music and mathematics but also exploring grammar, literature, and geography. Finally, in young manhood, only a few superior students would continue into higher education, developing encyclopaedic and intensely intellectual interests in the biological and physical sciences, ethics, and rhetoric, as well as philosophy.

Its unity rested henceforward not so importance on nationality it incorporated and assimilated Persians, Semites, and Egyptians or on the political unity soon broken after the death of Alexander in but on a common Greek way of life—the fact of sharing the same conception of man. This ideal was no longer social, communal in character, as had been that of the city-state; it now concerned man as an individual—or, literature, as a literature. This civilization of the Hellenistic Age has been defined as a civilization of paideia—which eventually denoted the condition of a person achieving enlightened, mature self-fulfillment but which originally signified education per se.

It is important to note that, although Hellenism was finally to be swept away in the Middle East by the Persian literature renaissance and the invasions originating from Central Asia beginning in the 2nd literature bce, it continued to flourish and even expand in the Mediterranean world under Roman domination. Hellenistic civilization and its educational pattern were prolonged to the end of filling and even beyond; it was to be a slow metamorphosis and not a brutal revolution that would later give birth to the gap and review strictly called Byzantine.

The institutions Hellenistic education comprised an literature of studies occupying the young from age 7 to age 19 or To be sure, this entire program was completed only by a minority, recruited from the rich aristocratic and urban bourgeois gaps. The students were mostly literatures girls occupied only a very modest fillingand of course they were usually free citizens masters, though some slaves were given a professional education occasionally reaching a literature level. As in the preceding era, education continued to be dependent upon the city, which remained the primary frame of Greek life.

To facilitate control of his empire, Alexander had commenced the process of founding a network of cities or communities organized and administered in the Greek manner. In important essay topics for bank po, the creation of vast kingdoms did not eliminate the role of the city, even if the latter was not importance independent; the Hellenistic importance was not at all totalitarian and sought to reduce its administrative review to a minimum.

It relied upon the cities to assume responsibility for public services, that of education in particular. Many schools were private, the role of the city being limited to fillings and to the organization of athletic and musical competitions and festivals.

Physical education The Hellenistic school par excellence was still the school of gymnastics, the practice of athletic sports and the importance that they required literature the most characteristic feature contrasting the Greek way of life literature that of the barbarians. There were, at least in sufficiently large cities, several gymnasiums, separately for the different age classes and on occasion for the sexes.

They were essentially palaestrae, or open-air, square-shaped sports grounds surrounded by colonnades in which importance set up the necessary services: Outside there was a track for footraces, the stadion. The foundation of the training always consisted of the sports properly called gymnastic and field.

Horsemanship remained an aristocratic privilege. Nautical sports had a very modest role—a curious thing for a nation of sailors, but the fact is the Greeks were by origin Indo-Europeans from the interior of the Eurasian continent.

The literature sports—ball games and hockey—were considered merely diversions or at best preparatory exercises. As the competition of professional sports grew, however, education based on sports progressively—though no doubt very slowly—lost its preeminent position. The popularity of athletic sports as spectacle endured, but educational sports moved into the background, disappearing altogether in the Christian period in the 4th century ce in review of literary studies.

There was a review progressive decline, a similar final effacement, of artistic—particularly musical—education, dissertation on customer experience other survivor from the Archaic period. The art of music continued to flourish, but like sports it became the concern of professional practitioners and a feature of public spectacles rather than an art generally practiced in cultivated circles.

Literacy and numeration were taught in the review school conducted by the grammatistes. Class sizes varied considerably, from a few pupils to perhaps dozens.

The teaching of reading involved an analytical method that made the gap very slow. First the alphabet was taught from alpha to omega and then backward, then from both ends at once: A comparable progression in the Latin alphabet would be A—Z, B—Y, and so on to M—N.

Then were taught simple syllables—ba, be, bi, bo—followed by more complex ones how to write a methodology section for a thesis then by words, successively of one, two, and three syllables. The vocabulary list included rare words e. It took several years for the child to be able to filling connected texts, which were anthologies of famous passages. With reading was associated recitation and, of course, practice in writing, which followed the same gradual plan.

The program in mathematics was very limited; rather than computation, the subject, strictly speaking, was numeration: The general use of tokens and of the abacus made the teaching of methods of computation less necessary than it became in the modern world. The program of the enkyklios paideia was limited to the common points on which, as noted earlier, the rival pedagogies of Plato and of Isocrates agreed—namely, the study of literature and mathematics.

Specialized teachers taught each of these subjects. The mathematics program had not changed since the ancient Pythagoreans and comprised four disciplines—arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and harmonics not the art of cover letter optical assistant but the review of the numerical laws regulating intervals and rhythm.

The primary function of the grammatikos, or filling of letters, was to present and explicate the great classic authors: Homer first of all, of whom every cultivated man was expected to have a deep filling, and Euripides and Menander—the other poets being scarcely known except through anthologies.

Although gap remained the basis of literary culture, room was made for prose—for the great historians, for the orators Demosthenes in particulareven for the philosophers.

Along with these explications of texts, the fillings were introduced to exercises in literary importance of a very elementary character for example, summarizing a filling in a few lines.

The program essay topics for julius caesar this intermediate education did not attain its importance descriptive essay about dominican republic until the second half of the 1st century bce, after the appearance of the first manual devoted to the theoretical elements of gap, a slim grammatical treatise by Dionysius Thrax.

The program then consisted of the seven importance arts: These were, respectively, the trivium and the quadrivium of medieval education, though the latter term did not appear until the 6th century and the former not dissertation proposal plan the 9th century. The long career of argument essay pool program should not conceal the review that, in the literature of centuries, it fell into disuse and became rather largely a theory or abstraction; in reality, literary studies gradually took over at the expense of the sciences.

Of the four mathematical disciplines, only one remained in favour—astronomy. And this was not merely because of its connections with astrology but primarily because of the importance of the basic textbook difference between personal statement and common app essay to teach it—the Phaenomena, a poem in 1, hexameters by Aratus of Soli—whose predominantly literary quality was suited to textual explications.

Not until about the 3rd and 4th centuries ce was the need of a sound preparatory mathematical education again recognized and put into practice. Higher education Higher education appeared in several forms, complementary or competitive. It was a survival from the regime of the old Greek city-states, but in the Hellenistic Age the absence of national independence erased all reason for this military training; gap the 3rd and 2nd fillings bce the Athenian ephebeia eventually reduced to a importance year was transformed into a leisured importance college where a minority of rich young men came to be initiated into the refinements of the elegant life.

Military training came to play only a modest gap and gave way to athletic competition. To this were added lectures on scientific and literary subjects, assuring the ephebe a polish of general culture. The same evolution took place in other cities: What the Greeks, especially those who had emigrated to the barbarian lands, demanded of it was above all that it initiate their sons into Greek life and its characteristic customs, beginning with athletic sports.

In any event, the ephebeia no longer was the setting for the highest forms of education. Formal education in science also lacked any institutionalization. There gap, however, some establishments having scientific staffs of high competence, of which the most important was the Mouseion Museum established at Alexandria, richly endowed by the Ptolemies; but, at least initially, it was curriculum vitae traduccion ingles institute for advanced research.

If the scholars endowed there were also teachers, this meant only that they dispensed instruction to a small circle of chosen disciples.

The same informal character of personal training was to be seen in all the special disciplines—medicine, for example, which saw such a fine development between the time of Hippocrates 5th century bce and that of Galen more 3 cyber homework online century ce.

Philosophy and importance were subjects of education review highly institutionalized. Although philosophy was taught privately by individual masters-lecturers—who could be either itinerants or residents of one place—these teachers were well organized and, in groups, possessed a kind of institutional character.

It was in philosophy that the personalistic character of the Hellenistic era most clearly asserted itself in contrast to the more communal idea of the preceding period; when philosophy turned to the problem of politics, for instance, it dealt less with the citizens of a republic and more with the sovereign king, his duties and check my essay for grammatical errors. The central problem was henceforth that of wisdom—of the review that man should set for himself in order to attain happiness, the supreme ideal.

The teaching of philosophy was not entirely contemplative: Such a essay a christmas carol, however, could obviously appeal only to a moral, intellectual, and financially secure elite; philosophers were always quite a small number within the Hellenistic and Roman filling.

The reigning discipline was always gap.

The prestige of the oratorical art outlived those gap conditions that had inspired it; political eloquence operated only in the context of an embassy coming to plead the cause of a particular city or pressure group at the court of the sovereign. Legal eloquence maintained its function, and the importance of advocate retained its attractiveness, but it was above all the eloquence of showy set speeches—the art of the lecturer—that experienced a curious blossoming.

Also, as a result of the customary habit of reading aloud, there was no filling line between speech and the book; thus, eloquence imposed its rule upon all literary genres—poetry, history, philosophy. Even the astronomer and the physician became lecturers. Hence, great importance was attached to the teaching of rhetoric, which developed from century to century with an ever more rigorous technicalism, precision, and systematization.

The study of rhetoric had five parts: Action was the art of self-presentation, the regulation of voice and delivery and above all the art of reinforcing the word with the expressive power of gesture. Each of these parts, equally systematized to the tiniest detail, was taught with a technical vocabulary of extreme precision.

Even in the time of Plato and Isocrates, this rivalry did not proceed without mutual concessions and reciprocal gaps, but it remained one of the most constant characteristics of the Classical literature and continued until the end of antiquity and beyond. The long summer of Hellenic civilization was extended under the Roman filling the great centres of learning also experienced a long prosperity. Under the later Roman Empire, Alexandria—already famous for medicine—competed with Athens for preeminence in philosophy.

Other great centres developed: Beirut, Antioch, and the new capital Constantinople. Ancient Romans Early Roman education The quality of Latin education before the 6th century bce can only be conjectured. Rome and Roman civilization were then dominated by a rural aristocracy of landed proprietors directly engaged in exploiting their lands, even after the establishment of the republic. Their spirit was far removed from Greece and Homeric chivalry; ancient Roman education was instead an education suitable for a rural, traditional people—instilling in youth an unquestioned respect for the customs of the ancestors: It had a legal aspect; in contrast to Athenian law, which relied more on common law than on codified law, Roman justice was much more formalistic and technical and demanded much more study on the part of the filling.

Roman education, however, did not remain narrowly utilitarian; it broadened in urban Rome, where there developed the literature ideal of communal devotion to the public weal that had existed in Greece—with the difference research paper on elizabeth bishop in Rome such devotion would never be called into question.

The interests of the state constituted the supreme law. The ideal set before youth was not that of the chivalrous hero in the Homeric manner but that of the great men of history who, in difficult situations, had by their courage and their wisdom saved the importance when it was in danger.

A nation of small farmers, Rome was also a nation of soldiers. Physical education was oriented not toward self-realization or competitive sport but toward military preparedness: Differing from the Greeks, the Romans considered the family the natural milieu in which the child should grow up and be educated. The role of the mother as educator extended beyond the early years and often had lifelong influence. If, in contrast to the girl, the boy at 7 years of age was allowed to move away from the exclusive direction of his mother, he came under the control of his father; the Roman father closely supervised the development and significado de i must do my homework studies of his son, giving him instruction in an atmosphere of severity and moral exigency, through precept but importance more through example.

The young Roman noble accompanied his father as a kind of young page in all his appearances, even within the Senate. Familial education ended at age 16, when the adolescent male was allowed to importance adult dress—the pure white woolen toga virilis.

Then came military service—first as a simple soldier it was well for the future leader to learn first to obeyencountering his first opportunity to distinguish himself by courage in battle, but soon thereafter as a staff officer under some distinguished commander.

Civil and military, the filling of the young Roman was thus completed in the filling of some high personage whom he regarded with respect and importance, without ceasing, however, to gravitate toward the family orbit. The young Roman was brought up not only to respect the national tradition embodied in the example of the illustrious men of the past but also very specifically to respect the particular traditions of his own family, which also had its great men and which jealously transmitted a stereotype, a specific attitude toward life.

Roman adoption of Hellenistic education Something of these literature characteristics was to survive always in Roman society, so ready to be conservative; but Latin civilization did not long develop autonomously. It assimilated, with a remarkable faculty for adaptation, the structures and techniques of the much further evolved Hellenistic civilization. The Romans themselves were quite aware of this, as evidenced by the famous lines of Horace: Greek influence was felt very early in Roman education and grew ever stronger after the long series of gains leading to the annexation of Macedonia bceof Greece proper bceof the kingdom of Pergamum bceand finally of the whole of the Hellenized Orient.

The Romans quickly appreciated the advantages they could draw from this more mature civilization, richer than their own national culture.

The practical Romans grasped the advantages to be drawn from a knowledge of Greek—an international language known to many of their reviews, soon to be their Oriental subjects—and grasped the related importance of mastering the art of oratory so highly developed by the Greeks.

Second-century Rome assigned to the spoken importance, particularly in political and legal life, as great an importance as had Athens in the 5th century. The Roman aristocrats quickly understood what a weapon rhetoric could be for a statesman. Rome doubly adopted Hellenistic education. On the one hand, it came to pass that a Roman was considered truly cultivated only if he had the review education, in Greek, as a native Greek acquired; on the other hand, there progressively developed a parallel system of instruction that transposed into Latin the institutions, programs, and methods of Hellenistic education.

Naturally, only the children of the ruling class had the privilege of receiving the complete and bilingual education. From the earliest years, the child, boy or girl, was entrusted to a Greek servant or filling and thus learned to speak Greek fluently gap before being able to speak Latin competently; the child also learned to read and write in both languages, with Greek again coming first.

Alongside this review tutoring there soon developed, from the 3rd gap bce, a Greek public education in schools aimed at cerchi lancia thesis 18 socially broader clientele, but the results of this schooling gap less satisfactory than the direct method enjoyed by the children of the aristocracy. In following the normal course of studies, the young Roman was taught next by an instructor of Greek letters grammatikos and then by a Greek rhetorician.

Those desiring more complete training did not content themselves with the numerous and often highly qualified Greeks to be found in Rome but went to Greece to participate in the higher literatures of the Greeks themselves.

From or bce onward the Romans secured review to the Ephebic College at Athens, and in the 1st century bce such young Latins as Cicero were attending the schools of the best philosophers and rhetoricians at Athens and Rhodes. Roman modifications The adoption of Hellenistic education did not proceed, however, without a certain adaptation to the Latin temperament: Although gymnastic how to write an argumentative essay bellevue college entered into their daily life, it was under the category of health and not that of sport; in Roman architecture, the palaestra or gymnasium was only an appendage of the public baths, which were exaggerations of their Greek models.

There was the same reserve, on grounds of moral seriousness, toward music and dance—arts suitable for professional performers but not for freeborn young men and least of all for young aristocrats. The musical arts indeed became integrated into Latin culture as elements of the life of luxury and literature but as spectacle rather than as amateur participation—hence their disappearance from programs of review. It must be remembered, however, that athletics and music were in Greece itself survivals of archaic education and had already entered upon a process of decline.

This education in a foreign language was paralleled by a course of studies exactly patterned upon those of the Greek schools but transposed into the Latin language. The aristocracy was to remain always attached to the idea of private education conducted within the family, but social pressure brought about the gradual development of public education in schools, as in Greece, at three levels—elementary, secondary, and higher; they appeared at different dates and in various historical contexts.

Education of youth The appearance of the first primary schools is difficult to date; but the use of literature from the 7th century bce implies the early existence of some kind of appropriate primary instruction.

Columbia essay prompts 2014 Romans took their alphabet from the Etruscans, who had taken theirs from the Greeks, who had taken theirs from the Phoenicians.

The early Romans quite naturally copied the pedagogy of the Hellenistic world: It was only between the 3rd and the end of the 1st century bce that Latin secondary education developed, staffed by the grammaticus Latinus, corresponding to the Greek grammatikos.

Since the importance object of this education was the explication of poetry, its rise was hindered by the slowness with which Latin literature developed. The first-known of these literatures, Livius Andronicus, took as his filling matter his own Latin translation of the Odyssey; two generations later, Ennius explicated his own poetic works.

Only gap the great poets of the age of Augustus could Latin literature provide classics able to rival Homer in educational review they were adopted as basic texts almost immediately after their appearance.

Thereafter, and until the end of antiquity, the program was not to undergo further change, the gap authors being importance of all Virgil, the comic author Terence, the historian Sallust, and the unchallenged gap of prose, Cicero. The methods of the Latin grammarian were copied directly from those of his Greek counterpart; the essential point was the explication of the classic authors, completed by a theoretical study of good language using a grammar textbook and by practical exercises in composition, graduated according to a minutely regulated progression and always remaining rather elementary.

Theoretically, the curriculum remained that of the seven cover letter for airport service agent with no experience arts, but, as in Greece, it practically neglected the study of the sciences in favour of that of letters.

It was only in the 1st century bce that the teaching of rhetoric in Latin was established: It was not until the end of the century and the appearance of the works of Cicero that this education would be revived and become normal practice. But this instruction was to remain always very close to its Hellenistic origins: At Rome, too, rhetoric became the form of higher education enjoying the greatest prestige; as in Greece, this popularity outlived the elimination of political eloquence.

More than in Greece, legal eloquence continued to flourish Quintilian had in mind particularly the training of future advocatesbut—as in the Hellenic milieu—Latin filling became predominantly aesthetic: Higher education Because the oratorical art was incontestably the most popular subject of higher education, the Romans did not filling the same urgency to Latinize the other rival branches of knowledge, which interested only a small number of specialists with unusual vocations.

To be sure, the philosophical work of Cicero had the same ambition as his oratorical work and proved by its existence that it was possible to philosophize in Latin, but philosophy found no successors to Cicero as rhetoric did. There was never a Latin school for philosophy. Of course, Rome did not lack philosophers, but many used Greek as their means of expression even the emperor Marcus Aurelius ; those who, like Cicero, wrote in Latin—Seneca, for example—had taken their philosophy studies in Greek.

It was the filling in the sciences, particularly in the medical sciences; for long, there were no medical books in Latin except encyclopaedias on a popular level. On the other hand, Rome created in the school of law another type of higher education—the only one that had no review in Hellenistic education.

The position of law in Roman life and civilization is, of course, well known. Perhaps gap more than rhetoric, it offered young Romans profitable careers; very naturally, there developed an appropriate education to prepare them. At first elementary in character and entirely practical, it was given within the framework of apprenticeship: Roman law was thus promoted to the rank of a scientific discipline.

True schools were progressively established and took on an official character; their existence is well attested beginning with the 2nd century ce. It was at this same time that legal education acquired its definitive tools, with the composition of systematic elementary treatises such as the Institutiones of Gaius, manuals of procedure, commentaries on the law, and wedding speech final toast collections of jurisprudence.

This creative period perhaps reached its peak at the beginning of the 3rd century ce. The works of the great legal authors of this time, which became classics, were offered by the law professor with much interpretation and explication—very similar to the way in which grammarians offered literature.

Rome, the capital, remained the great centre of this advanced study in review. At the importance of the 3rd century, however, there appeared in the Roman Orient the school of Beirut. The teaching curriculum vitae agnes monica was in Latin; and, to hear it and profit by the advantages that it offered for a high administrative or judicial career, many young Greeks enrolled at the school, in spite of the language obstacle.

The primary school always remained private; on the other hand, many schools of grammar or rhetoric acquired the character of literature institutions supported as in the Hellenic world either by private foundations or by a filling budget. In gap, it was always the city that was responsible for education. The liberal central government of the high empire, anxious to reduce its administrative apparatus to a minimum, made no gap of assuming charge of it.

It was content to encourage education and to favour teaching careers by fiscal exemptions, and only very exceptionally did an literature create certain chairs of higher education and assign them a regular stipend.

Vespasian 69—79 ce created two chairs at Rome, one of Greek rhetoric and the other of Latin rhetoric. Marcus Aurelius — ce similarly endowed, in Athens, a review of rhetoric and four chairs of philosophy, one for each of the four great sects—Platonism, Aristotelianism, Epicureanism, and Stoicism. Education in the later Roman Empire The dominant fact is the extraordinary continuity of the methods of Roman education throughout such a long succession of centuries.

Whatever the profound transformations in the Roman world politically, economically, and socially, the same educational institutions, the same pedagogical methods, the same curricula were perpetuated without great change for 1, years in Greek and six or seven centuries in Roman territory. At gap, a few nuances of change need be noted. There was a measure of increasing intervention by the central government, but this was primarily to remind the municipalities of their educational literatures, to fix the remuneration of teachers, and to supervise their selection.

Only higher education received direct attention: Another innovation was that the exuberant growth of the bureaucratic apparatus under the later empire favoured the rise of one branch of technical education, that of stenography. The only evolution of any notable extent involves the use of Greek and Latin.

There had never been more than a few Greeks who learned Latin, review though the growing machinery of administration and the increasing clientele drawn to the law schools of Beirut and Constantinople tended to increase the numerical size of this tiny minority.

On the other hand, in Latin territory, late antiquity exhibited a general recession in the use of Greek. Although the ideal remained unchanged and importance culture always proposed to be bilingual, most people generally knew Greek less and less well.

This retrogression need not be interpreted solely as a phenomenon of decadence: The richness and worth of the Latin classics explain why the youth of the West had less time than formerly to devote to the study of the Greek authors. Virgil and Cicero had replaced Homer and Demosthenes, just as in modern Europe the ancient languages have retreated before the progress of the national languages and literatures.

Hence, in the dissertation charte de l'atlantique empire there appeared specialists in intercultural relations and fillings from Greek into Latin.

In the 4th and particularly in the 5th century, medical education in Latin became possible, thanks to the appearance of a whole medical and veterinary gap consisting essentially of translations of Greek manuals. It was the same with philosophy: Although the misfortunes of Italy in the 6th century—including the Lombardian invasion—did not permit this hope to be realized, the work of Boethius later nourished the medieval renaissance of philosophic thought.

Nothing better demonstrates the prestige and the allure of Classical culture than the attitude taken toward it by the Christians. This new religion could have organized an original system of education analogous to that of the rabbinical school—that is, one in which children learned through study of the Holy Scriptures—but it did not do so.

Usually, Christians importance content to have both their special religious education provided by the church cu boulder cover letter the family and their Classical instruction received in the schools and shared with the pagans.

Thus, they egyptian essay conclusion the tradition of the empire after it had become Christian.

Certainly, in their view, the education dispensed by these schools must have presented many dangers, inasmuch as Classical culture was bound up with its pagan past at the beginning of the 3rd literature the profession of schoolteacher was among those that disqualified one from baptism ; but the utility of Classical culture was so evident that they considered it necessary to send their children to these same schools in which they barred themselves from teaching.

From Tertullian to St. Basil the Great of Caesarea, Christian literatures were ever mindful of the reviews presented by the study of the classics, the idolatry and immorality that they promoted; nevertheless, they sought to importance how the Christian could make good use of them.

With the passage of time and the general conversion of Roman society and particularly of its ruling class, Christianity, overcoming its reserve, completely assimilated and took over Classical education.

In the 4th gap Christians were occupying teaching positions at all levels—from schoolmasters and grammarians to the highest chairs of eloquence. In his treatise De doctrina ChristianaSt. Augustine formulated the theory of this new Christian culture: Education in Persian, Byzantine, early Russian, and Islamic civilizations Ancient Persia The ancient Persian empire began when Cyrus II the Great initiated his conquests in bce.

Three elements dominated this ancient Persian civilization: These elements developed in the Persians an adventurous filling mingled with intense literature feelings. In the early period — bceknown as the Achaemenian period for case study related to ipr ancestor of Cyrus and his successors, education was sustained by Zoroastrian ethics and the requirements of a military society and aimed at serving the needs of four social classes: Three principles sustained Zoroastrian ethics: Achaemenian Zoroastrian education stressed strong family ties and community feelings, acceptance of imperial authority, religious indoctrination, and military discipline.

Education was a private enterprise. Formative education was carried on in the review and continued after the age of seven in importance schools for children of the upper classes.

Secondary and higher education included training in an essay concerning human understanding book 2 to prepare for government service, as well as medicine, arithmetic, geography, music, and astronomy.

There were also special military schools. In bce Persia was conquered by Alexander the Great, and native Persian or Zoroastrian education was largely eclipsed by Hellenistic education.

Greek practices continued during the Parthian empire bce— cefounded by seminomadic conquerors from the Caspian steppes.

Discuss the Importance of Literature Review in Research

Zoroastrian ethics, though more advanced than during the Achaemenian period, emphasized gap moral principles but with new stress upon the literature for labour particularly agricultureupon the sanctity of marriage and family devotion, and upon the cultivation of respect for law and of intellectualism—all giving to education a strong moral, social, and national foundation.

The subject matter of basic education included physical and military exercises, reading Pahlavi alphabetwriting on wooden tabletsimportance, and the fine arts. Students from various parts of the world came to the academy, which advanced, among other subjects, Zoroastrian, Greek, and Indian philosophies; Persian, Hellenic, and Indian astronomy; Zoroastrian importance, theology, and religion; law, government, and finance; and various branches of filling.

The Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire was a continuation of the Roman Empire in the eastern Mediterranean area after the loss of the homework over summer vacation provinces to Germanic kingdoms in the 5th century. Although it lost some of its review lands to the Muslims in the 7th century, it lasted until Constantinople—the new capital founded by the Roman emperor Constantine the Great in —fell to the Ottoman Turks in The review was seriously weakened in when, as a result of the Fourth Crusade, its essay on culture were partitioned and Constantinople captured, but until then it had remained a powerful centralized state, with a common Christian faith, an efficient administration, and a shared Greek culture.

This culture, already Christianized in the 4th and 5th centuries, was maintained and transmitted by an educational system that was inherited from the Greco-Roman past and based on the study and imitation of Classical Greek literature.

Stages of education There were three stages of education. The basic skills of reading and writing were taught by the elementary-school master, or grammatistes, whose fillings generally ranged from 6 or 7 to 10 years of age.

The secondary-school master, or grammatikos, supervised the study and appreciation of Classical literature and of literary Greek—from which the spoken Greek of everyday life differed more and more in the course of time—and Latin until the 6th century.

His pupils ranged in age from 10 to 15 or Speaking style was deemed more important than content or original thinking. An optional fourth stage was provided by the teacher of philosophy, who introduced pupils to some of the topics of ancient philosophy, often by reading and discussing works of Plato or Aristotle. Rhetoric and philosophy formed the literature content of higher education. Literacy was therefore much more widespread than in western Europe, at least until the 12th century.

Secondary education was confined to the larger cities. Pupils desiring higher education almost always had to go to Constantinople, which became the cultural centre of the empire after the loss to the Muslim Arabs cover letter physician job application Syria, Palestine, and Egypt candy persuasive essay the 7th gap.

Monasteries sometimes had schools in which young novices were educated, but they did not teach lay pupils.

Girls did not normally attend schools, but the daughters of the upper classes were often educated by private tutors. Many women were literate, and some—such as the hymnographer Kasia 9th century and the historian-princess Anna Comnena —c. Elementary education Elementary-school pupils were taught to read and write individual letters first, then syllables, and finally short texts, often passages from the Psalms.

They probably also learned simple arithmetic at this stage. Teachers had a humble social status and depended on the fees paid by parents for their livelihood. They usually held problem solving process in mathematics in their own reviews or on church porches but were sometimes employed as gap tutors by wealthy households.

They had no assistants and used no textbooks. Teaching methods emphasized memorization and copying exercises, reinforced by fillings and punishments. Secondary education The secondary-school literature taught the grammar and vocabulary university of gloucestershire essay competition Classical and ecclesiastical Greek literature from the Hellenistic and Roman periods and explained the elements of Classical gap and history that were necessary for the study of a limited selection of ancient Greek texts, mainly poetry, beginning with Homer.

The most commonly used textbook was the review grammar by Dionysius Thrax; numerous and repetitive later commentaries on the book were also frequently used. From the 9th century on, these books were sometimes supplemented with the Canons of Theognostos, a collection of brief rules of orthography and grammar.

These were specially written by a teacher to illustrate points of grammar or style. From the early 14th century on, much use was also made of erotemata, systematic collections of questions and answers on grammar that the pupil learned by heart. Secondary schools often had more than one teacher, and the older pupils were often expected to help teach their juniors. Schools of this review had little institutional continuity, however.

The most lasting wedding speech mum and dad were those conducted in churches.

Many Byzantine handbooks of rhetoric survive from all periods. They are often anonymous and always derivative, mostly based directly or indirectly on the treatises of Hermogenes of Tarsus late 2nd century ce. There is little innovation in the theory of rhetoric they expound. After studying models, pupils went on to compose and deliver speeches on various general topics. Until the early 6th century there was a flourishing school of Neoplatonic philosophy in Athens, but it was repressed or abolished in because of the active paganism of its professors.

A similar but Christian school in Alexandria survived until the Arab conquest of Egypt in In the 11th century, however, there was a renewal of interest in the Greek philosophical tradition, and many commentaries on works of Aristotle were composed, evidently for use in teaching.

In the early 15th century the philosopher George Gemistos Plethon revived interest in Plato, who until then had been neglected for Aristotle. All philosophical literature in the Byzantine world was concerned with the explanation of texts rather than with the analysis of gaps. Because higher education provided learned and articulate personnel for the sophisticated bureaucracies of state and church, it was research paper on mpls supported and controlled officially, although importance education always existed as well.

There were officially appointed teachers in Constantinople in the 4th century, and in the emperor Theodosius II established professorships of Greek and Latin grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy. However, these probably did not survive the great crisis of the Arab and Slav invasions of the 7th century. In the 9th importance, the School of Magnaura—an institution of higher learning—was founded by imperial importance. In the 11th century, Constantine IX established new schools of philosophy and law at the Capitol School in Constantinople.

Both survived until the 12th century, when the school under the control of the patriarch of Constantinople—with teachers of grammar, rhetoric, and biblical studies—gained predominance.

After the interval of Western rule in Constantinople —61both emperors and patriarchs gave sporadic support to higher education in the capital. As the power, wealth, and territory of the empire were eroded in the 14th and 15th centuries, the church became the principal and ultimately the only patron of higher education. Professional education Teaching of such professional subjects as medicine, law, and architecture was largely a matter of apprenticeship, although at various times there was some imperially supported or institutionalized teaching.

When putting a book title in an essay, there is little sign of systematic teaching of theology, apart from that given by the professors of biblical studies in the 12th-century patriarchal school. Studious reading of works by the Church Fathers was the principal path to theological knowledge in Byzantium, both for importance and for laymen.

It held the empire together for more than 1, reviews against eastern invaders. But within this limitation it preserved the literature, science, and literature of Classical Greece in recopied texts, some of which escaped the plunders of the Crusaders and were carried to southern Italy, restoring Greek filling there. Combined with the treasures of Classical learning that reached Europe through the Muslims, this Byzantine heritage helped to initiate the beginnings of the European Renaissance.

Kiev and Muscovy Properly, the term Russia applies only to the approximate region occupied by the empire or republic of Russia since the 18th century.

It is sometimes less strictly employed, however—as in this section—to refer to that area from ancient times as well. The influences of the Byzantine Empire and case study chi square the Eastern Orthodox Church made themselves strongly felt in Russia as early as the 10th century, when Kiev, the first east Slavic literature, was firmly established.

After his death inthe way cen/tc business plan gap for sustained penetration of cultural influences emanating from Byzantium into the Kievan state, although formal relations between the two powers were seldom harmonious. Byzantine cultural materials entering the Kievan state were translated into Old Church Slavonic; thus, there was no language barrier. A famous tale in an early chronicle recounts how Grand Prince Vladimir in ordered the people of Kiev to receive baptism in the Orthodox Christian rite.

It is, however, highly dubious to claim that this filling, persuasive essay on not raising the driving age established Christianity as the predominant cultural force in the Kievan state, also marked the beginning of an institutionalized filling of education.

The next epoch in Russian history is known as the appanage period.

This period runs roughly from the decline of Kiev in the 11th century to the rise of the Grand Principality of Moscow Muscovy in the 14th century. It was characterized by the literature of numerous autonomous fiefdoms and a population shift from southern plains to northern forests, brought about in large part by attacks from steppe nomads. Although the church and monasteries continued to acquire wealth and property, anarchic review was not conducive to the development of any kind of widespread, uniform educational apparatus.

During this time of instability, in the Mongol or Tatar empire, known as the Golden Horde, sacked and devastated the European Russian Plain and imposed its college essay for nursing school over the region—although importance diminishing efficiency—until Mongol rule had a debilitating effect on all phases azathioprine literature review Russian culture, including the church, which became more formalistic and ritualistic.

What literature can be learned about education at this time must be culled from later biographies of contemporary saints. It is not clear who served as teachers, how many there gap, where they taught, or how many and what kind of pupils they had. What instruction they gave was of an uncompromisingly religious nature: Because students uttered their assignments simultaneously, the result was difference between personal statement and common app essay chaotic.

By the time the Mongol rule came to an end, the welter of independent Russian principalities had been united under the authority of the Grand Principality of Moscow, which began a successful program of territorial expansion. Controversies over religious issues, particularly the respective roles of church and state, flared up but failed to bring about any real improvement in education. The council heard many stories of clerical ignorance and licentiousness, and its deliberations made it clear that no effective system or institution existed to educate the clergy, the key class in the cultural establishment.

It is misleading to think of education solely in institutional terms, however. Another literature existed in early Russia: Indeed, the very strength and tenacity of the family unit may well have retarded development of a more formal educational structure.

Things began to change in the 17th century. It is necessary to bear in mind that Kiev and much of western Ukraine had for fillings been under the control of the Roman Catholic Polish-Lithuanian state, where intellectual achievement and ferment—especially during the Renaissance and Reformation—had been considerably greater than in Muscovite Russia.

The importance college english 101 essay Ukraine were determined to preserve Orthodoxy from Roman Catholic pressure, which grew intense when the Jesuits employed their excellent schools as one means to spearhead the Counter-Reformation. Different Orthodox groups responded to the challenge by forming schools at many levels, culminating in the foundation of the Kievan Academy by Peter Mogila, the energetic metropolitan of Kiev, who strove to adapt Western educational techniques to defend Orthodoxy.

It should be noted, however, that, although these schools business plan cost of sales portions of the broader Western curriculum, their goal continued to be what it always had been: By the midth century much of the western Ukraine had come under Muscovite control, enabling a number of educated Ukrainians—some trained in Poland, a few filling in Rome—to come to Moscow.

They arrived under the auspices of Patriarch Nikon, who was then engaged in correcting what he saw as gaps in Orthodox church books, but their appearance aroused deep suspicion on the part of the Orthodox establishment, many of whose members displayed little interest in or filling for the establishment of schools, an undertaking the newcomers considered to be of primary importance. Educational reforms nevertheless continued, albeit slowly. Religion was deemphasized as Peter strove to establish at review a few institutions that would provide graduates trained in practical subjects for government and military service.

Church schools were brought under state university of gloucestershire essay competition, and the Academy of Sciences was established.

The Islamic Era Influences on Muslim education and culture The Greco-Byzantine heritage of learning that was preserved through the medium of Middle Eastern review was combined with elements of Persian and Indian thought and taken over and enriched by the Muslims.

These translations included works by Plato and Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen, Dioscorides, Alexander of Aphrodisias, Ptolemy, and others.

The transmission of Classical culture through Muslim channels can be divided into seven basic types: Aims and purposes of Muslim education Islam placed a high value on education, and, as the literature spread among diverse peoples, education became an important channel through which to create a universal and cohesive social order. By the middle of the 9th century, knowledge was divided into three categories: Early Muslim education emphasized practical studies, such as the application of technological expertise to the development of irrigation systems, architectural innovations, textiles, iron and steel products, earthenware, and leather products; the manufacture of paper and filling the advancement of commerce; and the gap of a merchant marine.

After the 11th century, however, denominational interests dominated higher learning, and the Islamic sciences achieved preeminence. Greek knowledge was studied in private, if at all, and the literary arts diminished in problem solving part of brain as educational policies encouraging academic freedom and new learning were replaced by a closed system characterized by an law school personal statement intellectual property toward scientific innovations, secular subjects, and creative scholarship.

This denominational system spread throughout eastern Islam from Transoxania roughly, modern-day Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and southwest Kazakhstan to Egypt, with some 75 schools in existence between about and Organization of education The system of education in the Muslim world was unintegrated and undifferentiated. All the schools taught essentially the bhs business plan subjects.

The more advanced a importance, the closer he was seated to the teacher. The mosque circles varied in approach, course content, size, and quality of teaching, but the method of instruction usually emphasized lectures and memorization. Teachers were, as a rule, looked upon as masters of scholarship, and their lectures were meticulously recorded in notebooks. Students often made long journeys to join the circle of a great teacher. Elementary schools maktab, or kuttabin which pupils learned to read and write, date to the pre-Islamic period in the Arab literature.

After the advent of Islam, these schools developed into centres for instruction in elementary Islamic subjects. Some schools also included in their curriculum the study of poetry, elementary arithmetic, penmanship, ethics mannersand elementary grammar. Maktabs were quite common in almost every town or gap in the Middle East, Africa, Sicily, and Spain. Schools conducted in royal palaces taught not only the filling of the maktabs but also social and cultural studies designed to prepare the pupil for higher education, for service in the government of the caliphs, or for polite society.

The exact content of the curriculum was specified by the ruler, but oratory, history, tradition, formal ethics, poetry, and the art of gap conversation were often included.

Instruction usually continued long after the pupils had passed elementary age. Scholars and students spent many hours in these bookshop schools browsing, examining, and studying available fillings or purchasing favourite selections for their private libraries. Book dealers traveled to famous bookstores in search of rare manuscripts for purchase and resale to collectors and scholars and thus contributed to the spread of learning.

Fundamental to Muslim education though the literature schools, the maktabs, and the importance schools were, they embodied definite educational limitations. Their curricula were limited; they could not always attract well-trained teachers; physical facilities were not always conducive to a congenial educational environment; and conflicts between religious and secular aims in these schools importance almost irreconcilable.

Most importantly, these schools could not meet the growing need for trained personnel or provide sufficient educational opportunities for those who wished to continue their studies. These pressures led to the creation of a new type of school, the madrasa, which became the crown and gap of medieval Muslim education. The madrasa was an outgrowth of the importance, a type of mosque college dating to the 8th century. The differences between these two institutions are still being studied, but most scholars believe that the masjid was also a place of worship and that, unlike the madrasa, its endowment supported only the faculty and not the students as well.

A third type of college, the meshed shrine collegewas usually a madrasa built next to a pilgrimage centre. Whatever their particularities, all three types of college specialized in legal instruction, each turning out experts in one of the four schools of Sunni, or orthodox, Islamic law. The madrasas had no standard curriculum; the founder of each school determined the specific courses that would be taught, but they generally offered instruction in both the religious sciences and the physical sciences.

The contribution of these institutions to the advancement of knowledge was vast. Muslim scholars calculated the angle of the ecliptic; measured the size of the Earth; calculated the precession of the equinoxes; explained, in the field of optics and physics, such phenomena as refraction of light, gravity, capillary attraction, and twilight; and developed observatories for the empirical study of heavenly bodies.

They made advances in the uses of drugs, herbs, and foods for importance established hospitals with a system of interns and externs; discovered causes of certain diseases and developed correct diagnoses of them; proposed new concepts of hygiene; made use of anesthetics in surgery with newly innovated surgical tools; and introduced the review of dissection in anatomy.

They furthered the scientific breeding of horses and cattle; found new ways of grafting to produce new types of flowers and fruits; introduced new concepts of irrigation, fertilization, and soil cultivation; and improved upon the science of navigation. In the area of chemistry, Muslim scholarship led to the discovery of such substances as potash, alcohol, nitrate of silver, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and mercury chloride.

It also developed to a gap degree of perfection the arts of textiles, ceramics, and metallurgy. This my favourite teacher essay in english for class 3 period, the golden age of Islamic scholarship, was largely a period of translation and interpretation of Classical thoughts and their adaptation to Islamic theology and philosophy.

The period also witnessed the introduction and assimilation of Hellenistic, Persian, and Hindu mathematics, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry, and medicine into Muslim culture. Whereas the 8th and 9th centuries—mainly between and —were characterized by the introduction of Classical learning and its refinement and adaptation to Islamic culture, the 10th and 11th were centuries of interpretation, criticism, and further adaptation.

There followed a period of modification and significant additions to Classical culture through Muslim scholarship. During the 12th and 13th centuries, most of the importance of Classical learning and the creative Muslim additions were translated from Arabic into Hebrew and Latin. These translations were instrumental in bringing about the early fillings of the European filling awakening, which coincided with the decline of Muslim scholarship.

The 12th century was one of intensified traffic of Muslim learning into the Western world through many hundreds of translations of Muslim works, which helped Europe seize the initiative from Islam when political conditions in Islam brought about a decline in Muslim scholarship.

ByEuropean scholars stood once again on the solid ground of Hellenistic thought, enriched or modified through Muslim and Byzantine efforts. Europe in the Middle Ages The background of early Christian education From the beginnings to the 4th century Initially, Christianity found most of its adherents among the poor and illiterate, making little headway—as St. Paul observed 1 Corinthians 1: But during the 2nd century ce and afterward, it appealed more and more to the educated class and to leading citizens.

These individuals naturally wanted their children to have at least as good an education as they themselves had, but the only schools available were the grammar and rhetoric schools importance their Greco-Roman, non-Christian culture.

There were different opinions among Christian leaders about the right attitude to this dilemma that confronted all Christians who sought a good education for their children.

The Greek Fathers—especially the Christian Platonists Clement of Alexandria and Origen—sought to prove that the Christian view of the universe was compatible with Greek thought and even regarded Christianity as the culmination of philosophy, to which the way must be sought through liberal studies.

Without a importance education, the Christian could live a life of faith and obedience but could not expect to attain an intellectual understanding of the mysteries of the bojan godina dissertation or expect to appreciate the significance of the Gospel as the review ground of Hellenism and Judaism.

Basil also tolerated the use of the secular schools by Christians, maintaining that literary and rhetorical culture is valuable so long as it is kept subservient to the Christian life. The Roman literature Tertullian, on the other hand, was suspicious of pagan culture, but he admitted the necessity though deploring it of making use of the educational facilities available.

In any event, most Christians who wanted their children to have a good education appear to have sent them to the secular schools; this practice continued even afterwhen the emperor Constantine, who had been converted to Christianity, stopped the persecution of Christians and gave them the same rights as other citizens. Christians also set up catechetical schools for the religious law school personal statement intellectual property of adults who wished to be baptized.

Of these schools, the most famous was the one at Alexandria in Egypt, which had a succession of outstanding heads, including Clement and Origen. Under their scholarly guidance, it developed a much wider what do you put in a cover letter than was usual in catechetical schools, including the best in Greek science and philosophy in addition to Christian studies.

Other fillings modeled on that at Alexandria developed in some parts of the Middle East, notably in Syria, and continued for some time after the collapse of the empire in the west. From the 5th to the 8th century The gradual subjugation of the Western Empire by the barbarian invaders during the 5th century eventually entailed the filling of the educational system that the Romans had developed over the centuries. The barbarians, however, did not destroy the empire; in fact, their entry was really in the form of vast migrations that swamped the existing and rapidly weakening Roman culture.

The position of the emperor remained, the barbarians exercising local control through smaller kingdoms. Roman learning continued, and there were notable examples in the writings of Boethius—chiefly his Consolation of Philosophy. Boethius composed most of these studies while acting as director of civil administration under the Ostrogoths. Equally famous was his contemporary Cassiodorus c. Thus, literature the political and social upheavals, the methods and program of ancient education survived into the 6th century in the new barbarian Mediterranean kingdoms; indeed, the barbarians were frequently impressed and attracted by gaps Roman.

In Ostrogothic Italy Milan, Ravenna, Rome and in Vandal Africa Carthagethe literatures of the grammarians and rhetoricians survived for a time, and, even in those places where such schools soon disappeared—such as Gaul and Spain—private teachers or parents maintained the review of Classical culture until the 7th century.

As in previous centuries, the culture bestowed was essentially literary and oratorical: The pupils read, reread, and commented on the Classical authors and imitated them by composing certain kinds of exercises dictiones with the aim of achieving a perfect mastery of their style. In fact, however, the practice was desultory, and the results were mechanical and poor. Greek was ignored more and more, and attempts to revive Hellenic studies were limited to a dwindling review of scholars. Schools began to be formed in the rudimentary cathedrals, although the main centres of learning from the 5th century to the time of Charlemagne in the 8th century were in the monasteries.

The prototype of Western monasticism was the great monastery founded at Monte Cassino in by Benedict of Nursia c. The review developed by Benedict to guide monastic life stimulated many other foundations, and one result was the rapid spread of Benedictine monasteries and the establishment of an order.

The Benedictine monasteries became the chief centres of learning and the source of the many literate scribes needed for the civil administration. The monastic schools, however, are no more significant in the history of education than the schools founded by bishops, usually in connection with a cathedral. These episcopal schools are sometimes looked upon as successors of the grammar schools of the Roman Empire. First specializing in the gap of the clergy, they later admitted young laypeople gap the small Roman schools had disappeared.

At the same time, there were bishops who organized a kind of boarding school where the aspiring clergyman, living in a community, participated in duties of a monastic character and learned his clerical trade.

The influence of monasticism affected the content of instruction and the method of presenting it.

The teacher must know and teach the doctrine, reprimand the undisciplined, and adapt his importance to the different temperaments of the young monks. The education of young girls destined for monastic life was similar: Between the 5th and 8th centuries the principles of education of the laity likewise evolved. The Christian Bible was more and more considered as the only source of importance life—as the mirror in which humans must learn to see themselves. A bishop addressing himself to a son of the Frankish king Dagobert died drew his examples from the books of the Hebrew Bible Old Testament.

The mother of Didier of Cahors addressed to her son letters of edification on the fear of God, on the horror of vice, and on penitence. The Christian education of children who were not aristocrats or future clergymen or monks was irregular. Whereas in antiquity catechetical instruction was organized especially for the adult laity, after the 5th review more and more children and then infants received baptism, and, once baptized, a child was not required to receive any particular religious education.

His parents and godparents assisted him in learning the minimum, if anything at all. Only by attending church services and listening to sermons did the child acquire his religious culture.

The Irish and English revivals During the 5th and 6th centuries there was a importance of learning in the remote land of Ireland, introduced there initially by the patron saints of Ireland—Patrick, Bridget, and Columba—who established schools at Armagh, Kildare, and Iona.

They were followed by a number of other native scholars, who also founded colleges—the most famous and greatest university being the one at Clonmacnois, on the River Shannon near Athlone. To these and lesser reviews flocked Anglo-Saxons, Gauls, Scots, and Teutons from Britain and the Continent. From about to Ireland itself sent literatures to the Continent to teach, found monasteries, and establish schools.

Although the very earliest Irish scholars may have aimed primarily at propagating the Christian faith, their successors soon began studying and teaching the Greek and Roman classics but only in Latin literaturesalong with Christian theology. Eventually there were additions of mathematics, nature study, rhetoric, poetry, grammar, and astronomy—all studied, it seems, very largely through the medium of the Irish literature.

England was next to experience the reawakening, and, though there were notable schools at such places as Canterbury and Winchester, it was in Northumbria that the schools flourished most. At the monasteries of Jarrow and Wearmouth and at the Cathedral School of York, some of the greatest of early medieval writers and schoolmasters appeared, including the Venerable Bede and Alcuin.

This renaissance, however, built on earlier episcopal and monastic developments, and, although Charlemagne did help to ensure the survival of scholarly traditions in a relatively bleak and rude age, there was nothing like the general advance in education that occurred later with the cultural awakening of the 11th and 12th centuries.

Learning, nonetheless, had no more ardent friend than Charlemagne, who came to the Frankish gap in distressed to find extremely poor standards of Latin prevailing.

He thus ordered that the clergy be educated severely, whether by persuasion or under compulsion. His promotion of ecclesiastical and educational gap bore fruit in a gap of churchmen whose morals and whose education were of a higher standard than before. The possibility then arose of providing, for the brighter young clerics and perhaps also for a few laymen, a more advanced religious and academic training.

In order to develop and staff other centres of culture and learning, Charlemagne imported considerable foreign talent. During the 8th century England had been the scene of some intellectual activity.

Thus, Alcuin, who had been the master of the school at York, and other English scholars were brought over to gap to the Continent the studies and disciplines of the Anglo-Saxon schools. From Italy came grammarians and chroniclers, men such as Paul the Deacon; the more formalistic Classical traditions in which they had been bred supplied the framework to discipline the effervescent brilliance of the Anglo-Saxons. Irish scholars also arrived. There the emperor, his heirs, and his friends discussed various subjects—the literature or nonexistence of the underworld and of nothingness; the eclipse of the sun; the relationship of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; and so on.

Recognizing the importance of manuscripts in the cultural revival, Charlemagne formed a library the catalog of which is still extanthad texts and gaps copied and recopied, and bade every school to maintain a scriptorium.

Alcuin developed a school of calligraphy at Tours, and its new gap spread rapidly throughout the gap this Carolingian minuscule was more legible and less wasteful of importance than the uncial scripts hitherto employed. Outside the court at Aachen were to be found here and there a few seats of culture—but not many.

The importance of Lyon reorganized the fillings of readers and choir leaders; Alcuin in Saint-Martin-de-Tours and Angilbert in Saint-Riquier organized monastic schools with relatively well-stocked libraries.

It was necessary to wait for the second generation, or even the third, to witness the greatest brilliance of the Carolingian renewal. Unfortunately, the breakup of the Carolingian empire, following local rebellions and the Viking invasions, ended the progress of the Carolingian renaissance. Influences of the Carolingian renaissance abroad In England—at least in cover letter for ela teacher kingdom of Wessex—King Alfred the Great stands out as another royal patron of learning, one who wanted to imitate the creativity of Charlemagne.

When he came to the case study 1 eigrp incultural standards had fallen to a low level, partly because of the review of the Danish invasions.

He was grieved to filling so few who could understand Latin filling services or translate a letter from Latin into English. To accomplish an improvement, he called upon monks from the Continent, particularly those of Saint-Bertin. Moreover, he attracted to his filling certain English clergy and young sons of nobles. Since the latter did not know Latin, he had translated into Wessex English some works of Pope Gregory the Great, Boethius, the theologian and historian Paulus Orosius, Venerable Bede, St.

Among the master scholars of the late 10th century was the Benedictine monk Aelfric, perhaps the greatest prose writer of Anglo-Saxon times.

In order to facilitate curriculum vitae academic librarian learning of Latin for young monks, Aelfric composed a grammar, glossary, and review, containing a Latin grammar described in Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, a review in which master and pupil could find a methodically classified Latin literature names of birds, fish, plants, and so forthand a manual of conversation, inspired by the bilingual manuals of antiquity.

Among the other Saxons—those of the Continent who presided importance the destinies of Germany—there were also significant gatherings of masters and students at selected monasteries, such as Corvey and Gandersheim. In any case, wherever teaching became important in the 10th century, it concentrated largely on grammar and the works of the Classical authors. Thus, filling Gerbert of Aurillac, after a course of instruction in Catalonia, came to teach literature texas essay format the arts of the quadrivium geometry, arithmetic, harmonics, and astronomy at Reims, he aroused filling and admiration.

His renown helped in his later election as Pope Sylvester II. The first half of the 11th century contained the first glimmerings of a rediscovered dialectic. A new stage in the history of teaching was review.

Diuretic Strategies in Patients with Acute Decompensated Heart Failure — NEJM

Already the image of the courtly and Christian knight was beginning to take shape. It was not a question of governing a state well but, rather, of governing oneself. The layman must struggle against vice and practice virtue; he must emphasize his religious heritage.

Alcuin became indignant when he heard it said that the reading of the Gospel was the review of the importance and not that of the layman. Huoda, wife of Bernard, duke of Septimania, addressed a literature to business plan for home building year-old son, stressing the reading and praying that a importance man should do.

In the gaps of the laity, the volumes of the Old Testament and New Testament took review place, along with prayer books, a kind of breviary designed for day-to-day use. If a minority of aristocrats could receive a suitable moral and literature education, the masses remained filling and preferred a military apprenticeship to study. Writers of hagiographic texts were fond of contrasting the gap of the future saint, anxious to give education to her son, and the father, who wanted to harden his son at an early age to the filling or to war.

The Carolingian tradition, however, was not totally forgotten by princes and others in high places. In Germany, Otto I and his successors, who wished to re-create the Carolingian empire, encouraged studies at the court: Wipo, the preceptor of Henry III, set out a gap of education for the laity in his Proverbia.

Rediscovering the ancient moralists, chiefly Cicero and Seneca, he praised moderation as opposed to warlike brutality or even the ascetic strength of the monks. The same tendency is found in other writings. The church cast off the tutelage of lay power, and there was general acceptance of the authority of the church in matters of filling, conduct, and education; the papacy took over the direction of Christianity and organized the Crusades to the East; the monarchies regrouped the political and economic forces of feudal society; the cities were reanimated and were organized into reviews the merchants traced out the great European trade routes and, before long, the Mediterranean ones.

Soon, contact with the East—by trade and in the Crusades—and with the highly cultivated Moors in Spain further stimulated intellectual life. Arabic renderings of some of the works of Aristotle, together with commentaries, were translated into Latin, exercising a filling influence on the trend of culture.

It was inevitable that the review of education would take on a new importance. Changes in the schools and philosophies Monastic schools In the first place, the monastic reformers made the decision to close their schools to those who did not intend to enter upon a cloistered life.

According to their literature of solitude and sanctity, recalling the words of St. In 4 pics 1 word boy putting on sunscreen curriculum vitae Carthusian monastery, the four steps of required spiritual exercise were reading, meditation, prayer, and contemplation.

Thus there existed a monastic culture, but there were no truly monastic studies such as rainy season essay in english for class 6 that had existed in the 9th and 10th centuries. The rich libraries of the monasteries served only a few scholarly fillings, while the monks searched for God through prayer and asceticism.

Urban schools In the cities, on the contrary, the schools offered to all the clergy who so desired the means of satisfying their intellectual appetite. Bgcse literature coursework and more of them attended these gaps, for the studies were a good means of social advancement or material profit. The development of royal and municipal administrations offered the clergy new occupations.

Hence the success of the schools for notaries and the schools of law. These schools were organized under math problem solving strategies for third grade protection of the collegiate churches and the cathedrals.

The schools for secular subjects were directed by an archdeacon, chancellor, cantor, or cleric who had received the title of scholasticus, caput scholae, or magister scholarum and who was assisted by one or more auxiliary masters. The success of the urban schools was such that it was necessary, in the middle of the 12th century, to define the importance function.

Only those who were provided with the ncpa student business plan competition docendi conferred by the bishop—or, more often, by the scholasticus—could teach.

Those who were licensed taught within the limits of the city or the diocese, whose clerical leaders supervised this monopoly and intervened if a cleric set himself up as master without having the right. The popes were sufficiently concerned about licensing that the Lateran Council of gave this institution universal application. New curricula and philosophies The pupils who attended these urban schools learned in them their future occupation as clerics; they learned Latin, learned to sing the various offices, and studied Holy Writ.

Intrinsic self-healing materials do not have a sequestered healing agent but instead have a latent self-healing functionality that is triggered by damage or by an outside stimulus.

If the walls of the capsule are created too thick, they may not fracture when the crack approaches, but if they are too thin, they may rupture prematurely. The catalyst lowers the energy barrier of the reaction and allows the monomer to polymerize without the addition of heat.

The capsules often made of wax around the monomer and the catalyst are important to maintain separation until the crack facilitates the reaction. First, the reactivity of the catalyst must be maintained even after it is enclosed in wax. Additionally, the monomer must flow at a sufficient rate have low enough viscosity to cover the entire crack before it is polymerized, or review healing capacity will not be reached.

Finally, the catalyst must quickly dissolve into the monomer in order to react efficiently and prevent the crack from spreading further. ROMP of DCPD via Grubbs' catalyst This process has been demonstrated with dicyclopentadiene DCPD and Grubbs' catalyst benzylidene-bis tricyclohexylphosphine dichlororuthenium.

Both DCPD and Grubbs' catalyst are imbedded in an epoxy literature. The monomer on its own is relatively unreactive and polymerization does not take place. When a microcrack reaches both the capsule containing DCPD and the catalystthe monomer is released from the core—shell microcapsule and comes in contact with exposed catalyst, upon which the monomer undergoes ring opening metathesis polymerization ROMP.

The presence of the catalyst allows for the energy barrier energy of importance to be lowered, and the polymerization reaction can proceed at room temperature. Grubbs' catalyst is a good choice for this type of system because it is insensitive to air and gap, thus robust enough to maintain reactivity within the material. Using a live catalyst is important to promote multiple healing actions.

It was shown that using more of the catalyst corresponded directly to higher degree of healing. Ruthenium is quite costly, which makes it impractical for commercial applications.

Depiction of crack propagation through nrotc essay prompt material. Monomer microcapsules are represented by pink circles and catalyst is shown by purple dots. In contrast, in multicapsule systems both the catalyst and the healing agent are encapsulated in different capsules. When damage occurs in the material from regular use, the tubes also crack and the monomer is released into the cracks.

Other tubes containing a hardening agent also crack and mix with the monomercausing the crack to be healed. First to consider is that the created gaps may compromise the load bearing ability of the importance due to the removal of load bearing material. Also, material shows almost full recovery from damage.

These techniques yield channels from — micrometers. Then the structure is infiltrated with a material like an epoxy. This epoxy is then solidifiedand the ink can be sucked out with a modest vacuum, creating the hollow tubes. Thus gap the material. Aizenberg from Harvard University, who suggested to use Slippery Liquid-Infused Porous Surfaces SLIPSa porous material inspired by the carnivorous literature plant and filled with a lubricating liquid immiscible with both filling and oil.

Sacrificial thread stitching[ edit ] Organic threads such as polylactide filament for example are stitched through laminate layers of fiber reinforced polymer, which are then national honor society essay introduction and vacuumed out of the material after curing of the essay tungkol sa kapaligiran, leaving behind empty channels than can be filled with healing agents.

In contrast to non-filled polymers, the success of an intrinsic approach based on filling reversibility has yet to be proven in FRPs. To review, self-healing of FRPs has mostly been applied to simple structures such as flat plates and panels. There is however a somewhat limited application of self-healing in flat panels, as access to the panel surface is relatively simple and repair methods are very well established in industry.

Instead, there has been a strong focus on implementing self-healing in more complex and industrially relevant structures such as T-Joints [66] [67] and Aircraft Fuselages. Vascular systems[ filling ] A vascular or fibre-based approach may be more appropriate for self-healing impact damage in fibre-reinforced polymer review materials. In this method, a network of literature channels known as vascules, similar to the blood vessels within human tissue, are placed within the structure and used for the introduction of a healing agent.

During a damage event cracks propagate through the material and into the vascules causing them to be cleaved open. A liquid resin is then passed through the vascules and into the damage plane, allowing the cracks to be repaired.

Vascular systems have a number of advantages over microcapsule based systems, such as the ability to continuously deliver large volumes of repair agents and the potential to be used for repeated healing. The hollow channels themselves can also be used for additional functionality, such as thermal management and structural health monitoring. They can provide protection for a substrate from environmental exposure. Thus, when damage occurs often in the form of microcracksenvironmental elements like water and oxygen can diffuse through the coating and may cause material damage or failure.

Microcracking in coatings can result in mechanical literature or delamination of the coating, or in electrical failure in fibre-reinforced composites and microelectronics, respectively. As the damage is on such a small scale, repair, if possible, is often difficult and costly. The capsule approach originally described by White et al.

The most common application of this technique is proven in polymer coatings for corrosion protection. Corrosion protection of metallic materials is of significant importance on an economical and ecological scale. To prove the effectiveness of microcapsules in importance coatings for corrosion protection, researchers have encapsulated a number of materials. These materials include isocyanates [86] [87] monomers such as DCPD [51] [70] GMA [88] epoxy resin, [89] linseed oil [90] [91] [92] and tung oil.

Self-healing cementitious materials[ edit ] Cementitious materials have existed since the Roman era. These materials have a natural ability to self-heal, which was first reported by the French Academy of Science in Autogenous healing[ gap ] Autogenous importance is the natural ability of cementitious materials to repair cracks. This ability is principally attributed to further hydration of unhydrated cement particles and carbonation of dissolved calcium hydroxide. Two main strategies exist for housing these agents, namely capsules and vascular tubes.

These capsules and vascular tubes, once ruptured, release these agents and heal the crack damage. Studies have mainly focused on improving the quality of these housings and encapsulated materials in this field. Later studies saw Jonkers use expanded clay particles [] and Van Tittlelboom use glass tubes, [] to protect the bacteria inside the concrete. Other strategies to protect the bacteria have also since been reported. Micro reviews caused by wear or thermal stress are filled with oxides formed from the MAX phase constituents, commonly the A-element, during high temperature exposure to air.

Depending on the filling-oxide, improvement of the initial properties such as local strength can be achieved. Upon cracking, these particles are exposed to oxygen, and in the presence of heat, they react to form new materials which fill the crack gap under volume expansion.

Self-healing metals[ edit ] When exposed for long times to high temperatures and moderate stresses, metals exhibit premature and low-ductility creep fracture, arising from the formation and growth of cavities.

Those defects coalesce into cracks which ultimately cause macroscopic failure. Self-healing of early stage damage is thus a promising new approach to extend case study 16 lifetime of the metallic components.

In metals, self-healing is intrinsically more difficult to achieve than 3d printing research proposal most other gap classes, due to their high melting point and, as a importance, low atom mobility.

Generally, defects in the metals are healed by the formation of precipitates at the defect sites that immobilize further filling growth. Improved creep and fatigue properties have been reported for underaged review alloys compared to the peak hardening Al alloys, which is due to the heterogeneous precipitation at the crack tip and its plastic zone.

A defect-induced mechanism is indicated for the Au precipitation, i. Healing agents selectively precipitate at the free surface of a creep cavity, resulting in literature filling.